TJ 
485 
C5H39 
1902 


ENGINEERING    & 

MATHEMATICAL 

SCIENCES    LIBRARY 


PRACTICAL-  HANDBOOKS! 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


GIFT 


The  Corliss  Engine, 


JOHN    T.    HENTHORN, 


ITS   MANAGEMENT, 


CHARLES    D.    THURBER. 


KUITED   BV 

r>.     \VATSOIsi 


FIFTH   THOUSAND. 


NEW  YORK : 
SPON  &  CHAMBERLAIN,  123  LIBERTY  STREET. 

LONDON : 
E.  &  F.  N.  SPON,  LIMITED,  125  STRAND. 

1902 


Copyrighted  by  E.   P.  Watsoh  &.  Son,  1891. 


Copyrighted  by  Spon  &  Chamberlain,  1893. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I.— Introductory   and    Historical.     Steam 
Jacketing 3 

CHAPTER  II.— Indicator  Cards 8 

CHAPTER  III. — Indicator  Cards  continued.   The  Gov- 
ernor ...  14 

CHAPTER  IV. — Valve    Gear   and    Eccentric.      Valve 

Setting 18 

CHAPTER  V. — Valve  Setting  continued,  with  diagrams 
of  same.    Table  for  Laps  of  Steam  Valve 20 

CHAPTER  VI. — Valve  Setting  continued-., 27 

CHAPTER  VII. — Lubrication,  with  diagrams  for  same    30 

CHAPTER  VIII. — Discussion  of  the  Air  Pump  and  its 

Management 36 

CHAPTER  IX.— Care  of  Main   Driving  Gears.     Best 

Lubricator  for  same 39 

CHAPTER  X. — Heating  of  Mills  by  Exhaust  Steam  _-     44 

CHAPTER  XI. — Engine    Foundations;   diagrams  and 
templets  for  same 48 

CHAPTER  XII. — Foundations    continued.      Materials 

for  same 53 

APPENDIX _  93 


THE  CORLISS  ENGINE. 


CHAPTER  I. 

Since  the  issue  of  the  patent,  in  the  year 
1849,  to  Geo.  H.  Corliss,  for  certain  improve- 
ments in  the  working  of  steam-engines,  and 
covering  the  admission  of  steam  to  the  cylin- 
der by  the  combined  action  of  a  governor,  to 
determine  the  point  of  cut-off  at  which  a  lib- 
erating valve-gear  shall  act,  and  thus  allow  a 
certain  amount  of  expansion  to  take  place  in 
the  cylinder  before  the  end  of  a  stroke  is  com- 
pleted, I  think  it  will  be  conceded  by  all  fair- 
minded  engineers,  when  we  come  to  look 
over  the  ground  carefully,  covered  by  the 
proposition,  that  no  improvement  has  been 
made  since  that  time,  up  to  this  date,  in  the 
economy  of  working  steam  expansively  as  ex- 
emplified by  this  system.  This  assumption 
may  be  questioned  even  now  by  a  few  zealous 
persons. 

The  gradual  development  and  appreciation 
of  the  Corliss  system  during  the  past  thirty-six 


years,  has  grown  to  such  proportions  as  to 
trace  this  Corliss  principle  in  the  design  and 
build  of  a  large  proportion  of  the  engines  used 
in  our  manufacturing  industries  in  this  and 
foreign  countries,  and  I  may  say  that  its  use 
for  maritime  purposes  is  better  appreciated  to- 
day, and  will  be  still  better  in  years  to  come, 
by  the  few  years  of  experience  that  it  has 
been  subjected  to  to  determine  its  value  over 
other  systems  now  in  use  for  that  purpose. 

During  this  long  period  of  increasing  useful- 
ness, it  has  seen  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  most 
sanguine  expectations  of  many  inventors  for 
its  honors.  Sufficient  evidence  has  been  gath- 
ered by  steam-users  throughout,  I  may  say, 
the  civilized  world,  as  a  criterion  of  its  merits  ; 
and  this  has  been  established  by  facts  cover- 
ing economical  performance  for  years,  rather 
than  by  claims  based  upon  theory. 

STEAM-JACKETING. 

When  we  consider  the  value  that  steam- 
jacketing  the  cylinders  of  an  engine  offers  for 
economizing  fuel,  we  enter  into  many  prob- 
lems of  an  interesting  character.  The  mere 
fact  of  steam-jacketing  a  cylinder,  or,  in  other 
words,  subjecting  the  working  barrel  to  a  con- 


slant  circulation  of  steam  direct  from  the 
boiler,  inclosed  in  a  separate  chamber,  does 
not  imply  a  direct  or  definite  saving  in  fuel 
equally  available  to  all  types  of  engines. 

In  one  case  it  is  an  improvement  of  a  very 
decided  character,  while  for  another,  working 
under  a  different  range  of  expansion,  the  addi- 
tional expense  for  its  provision  would  not  be 
justifiable  when  we  consider  the  question  of 
fuel  and  care  necessary  for  the  proper  working 
condition  of  the  jacket.  Steam-jacketing  is  a 
decided  advantage  when  a  liberal  amount  of 
expansion  is  carried  out  in  the  cylinder,  or 
when  a  wide  range  in  temperature  exists  be- 
tween the  initial  temperature  of  the  steam  ad- 
mitted and  the  final  temperature  at  which  it  is 
sxhausted  into  the  condenser  or  atmosphere. 
Therefore  its  economical  application  is  gov- 
erned entirely  by  these  two  elements. 

To  steam-jacket  a  slide-valve  engine,  when 
the  steam  is  allowed  to  follow  nearly  full 
stroke  before  cutting  off,  the  saving  in  fuel,  for 
this  case,  would  not  pay  the  difference  for  the 
extra  cost  of  such  practice,  and  is  not  advisable. 

The  shorter  the  cut-off  in  any  engine,  the 
more  efficient  a  system  of  steam-jacketing  the 


cylinder  becomes ;  from  the  fact  that  the 
amount  of  cylinder  condensation  which  takes 
place  at  each  admission  of  steam  to  the  cylin- 
der is  reduced  to  a  minimum,  by  maintaining 
the  walls  of  the  cylinder  at  a  uniform  temper- 
ature. 

Many  people  suppose  that  this  question  of 
admitting  steam  to  a  cylinder  to  overcome  a 
given  amount  of  resistance  is  like  unto  meas- 
uring beans  in  a  bushel,  and  of  a  practically 
definite  quantity,  whereas,  the  fact  is,  that 
when  steam  is  admitted  to  the  cylinder  suffi- 
cient heat  has  to  be  imparted  by  such  entering 
steam  to  the  walls  of  the  cylinder  to  bring  its 
temperature  up  to  a  point  equal  to  that  of  the 
entering  steam,  resulting  in  a  possible  amount  of 
cylinder  condensation  equal  in  quantity  to  that 
required  to  overcome  the  work  of  that  stroke. 

It  is  therefore  essential  that  when  we  con- 
sider the  question  of  the  economical  perform- 
ance of  any  proposed  engine,  we  thoroughly 
consider  the  effect  that  an  efficient  system  of 
steam-jacketing  offers  for  that  purpose.  Its 
application  is  well  worthy  of  the  object,  and 
may  safely  be  stated  to  save,  for  engines  of 
approved  character  using  steam  expansively, 


from  8  to  10  per  cent,  of  the  fuel  used.  It 
may  be  claimed  by  a  few  that  the  speed  of 
the  engine  has  a  marked  influence  upon  the 
amount  of  cylinder  condensation,  from  the 
theory  that  the  walls  of  the  cylinder  are  ex- 
posed fora  greater  length  of  time  between  each 
alternate  stroke  of  the  engine,  for  strokes  of  5 
to  6  feet,  and  about  60  revolutions  per  minute, 
and  consequently  more  condensation  takes 
place  during  that  period  than  would  otherwise 
occur  for  a  higher  speed  of  rotation  and  shorter 
stroke.  This  assumption,  although  existing  as 
a  fact  for  slow  speeds,  ceases  to  have  much 
importance  for  what  may  be  termed  long-stroke 
stationary  engines,  say  from  5  to  6  feet,  or 
considering  other  circumstances  of  equally 
practical  moment,  for  speeds  even  as  low  as  50 
to  60  revolutions  per  minute. 

At  this  speed,  I  believe,  for  equal  points  of 
cut-off  or  range  of  expansion,  that  the  differ- 
ence in  fuel,  due  to  cylinder  condensation  be- 
tween this  speed,  of  say  55  revolutions  per 
minute,  and  for  engines  of  a  higher  speed  of 
rotation,  say  100  revolutions  per  minute,  a 
jacket  is  of  no  practical  value,  as  I  believe,  for 
the  disadvantages  attending  such  a  high  speed 


of  engine  more  than  neutralize  any  benefit  to 
be  derived  from  an  assumed  decrease  in  the 
cylinder  condensation  in  the  working  of  the 
two  systems. 

CHAPTER  II. 

INDICATOR-CARDS. 

I  do  not  consider  that  the  engine  making  the 
finest-looking  indicator-card,  as  that  term  is 
generally  considered  to-day  by  engineers,  is 
necessarily  working  to  the  best  advantage,  re- 
garding friction  and  economy. 

I  am  aware  that  this  impression  has  been 
given  by  some  engineers,  who  have  suggested 
to  manufacturers  that  such  must  necessarily  be 
the  case  under  all  circumstances.  I  am  free  to 
admit  that  I  think  there  are  other  conditions  to 
be  fulfilled,  in  the  satisfactory  working  of  an 
engine,  equally  as  important  as  giving  an  indi 
cator-card  :  "fulfilling  all  the  conditions  neces 
sary  for  economy  "  with  their  square  corners, 
excessive  compression,  and  plumb-line  induc- 
tion, representing  the  admission  of  steam  to 
the  cylinder. 

To  my  eye,  the  best-looking  card  is  that  show- 
ing the  least  amount  of  fiictional  resistance  to 


be  overcome  for  a  given  amount  of  work  per- 
formed, and  compression  sufficient  to  gently 
affect  the  moving  parts  as  they  come  to  rest;  to 
turn  the  center  with  an  expansion-line  follow- 
ing well-established  rules,  and  a  movement  of 
the  exhaust-valves  to  allow  in  the  least  possible 
time,  during  the  first  part  of  the  return  stroke, 
the  piston  to  have  the  full  benefit  of  the  vacuum 
where  a  condensing-engine  is  employed. 

If  these  conditions  are  fulfilled,  I  believe  that 
the  engine  is  accomplishing  good  work  eco- 
nomically, with  a  minimum  amount  of  friction 
for  the  power  developed.  All  these  conditions 
may  be  obtained,  notwithstanding  we  may 
have  a  card  where  the  steam-line  falls  off  as  in 
Fig.  i.  To  some,  this  may  seem  a  very  serious 
defect.  If  we  wish  to  drive  machinery  econom- 
ically, assuming  we  have  tools  to  do  it  with,  we 
should  so  adjust  its  condition  of  working  that  it 
may  be  able  to  produce  that  result  with  as  little 
effort  to  move  itself  as  possible.  This  implies 
an  admission  of  full  boiler  pressure  to  the  cylin- 
der after  the  crank  has  passed  the  center  to  help 
turn  the  crank-shaft  rather  than  retard  it.  This 
will  be  the  case  if  we  attempt  to  make  a  per- 
fectly plumb  steam-admission  line  on  the  card. 


10 

To  bring  about  this  early  admission  of  steam, 
or  steam-lead  so  called,  to  produce  a  steam-ad- 
mission line  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  mo- 
tion it  is  necessary  to  so  place  the  eccentrics 
relative  to  the  crank  as  to  have  the  steam- 
valves  which  are  operated  by  it  in  such  a  posi- 
tion that  boiler  pressure  may  be  upon  the 


FIG.  i. 

piston  the  instant  the  direction  of  motion  is 
changed.  To  accomplish  this  implies  an  open- 
ing of  the  steam-valve  before  the  crank  comes 
up  to  the  center,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2.  Now  any 
such  steam  pressure  admitted  to  the  cylinder 
with  the  crank  in  that  position  is  a  detriment, 
causing  an  increase  in  the  friction  of  the  en- 


FIG.  2. 


gine  by  a  longer  application  of  pressure  upon 
crank  and  cross-head  pins,  and  main  bearing  ; 
also,  a  diminution  in  the  energy  of  the  wheel, 
which,  necessarily,  has  to  be  restored  by  addi- 
tional steam  at  the  next  stroke  of  the  engine, 
and  a  generally  debilitating  effect  upon  all 
parts  of  the  engine. 

I  believe  that  the  time  to  admit  full  steam 
pressure  to  an  engine,  leaving  aside  the  ques- 
tion of  handsome  indicator-cards,  is  when  the 
crank  has  arrived  at  such  a  point  in  its  travel 
(see  Fig.  3)  as  to  be  influenced  by  such  press- 
ure, with  the  effect,  as  I  have  said  before,  to 
momentarily  hasten  rather  than  retard  the  ac- 
tion of  the  driving  pulley. 

Of  course,  I  do  not  wish  to  be  understood  as 
favoring  extremes,  even  in  this  direction  ;  but 
I  am  willing  to  accept  Fig.  i  as  a  basis  for  my 
indicator-card.  That,  in  my  judgment,  is  best 
suited  for  the  majority  of  engines  as  ordinarily 
run,  producing  the  least  friction  in  accomplish- 
ing a  given  amount  of  work,  and  in  the  easiest 
running  condition,  all  things  considered,  for 
doing  that  work. 


CHAPTER  III. 

I  have  seen,  a  great  many  times,  the  folly 
and  evil  effect  of  allowing  a  fine-looking  indi- 
cator-card to  be  the  ruling  spirit  governing 
valve  adjustments,  where  questions  of  a  prac- 
tical character  have  not  been  considered  of 
sufficient  importance  to  justify  thought,  so 


FIG.  4. 

long  as  a  "fine-looking  "  card,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
4,  is  obtained.  This  state  of  affairs  requires 
adjustment,  so  that  the  engine  may  show  an 
indicator-card  worthy  of  consideration,  and  be 
given  a  chance  to  do  its  work,  untrammeled 
by  steam-lead  or  the  excessive  compression 
that  is  now  "fashionable."  High  compression 
is  assumed  to  be  a  necessity  for  all  high-speed 


engines,  from  the  fact  that  it  is  much   used  in 
locomotives. 

If  we  compress  steam  in  the  cylinder  by  an 
early  closing  ot  the  exhaust-valve,  up  to  a  point 
about  equal  to  the  terminal  pressure,  we  have 
reached  the  limit  desirable  for  condensing-en- 
gines;  for  the  majority  of  non-condensing  en- 
gines the  compression  should  be  about  5  Ibs.  in 
excels  of  the  terminal  pressure.  These  limits  are 
suggested  by  a  consideration  of  practical  ques- 
tions equally  as  important  to  the  manufacturer 
as  those  of  a  theoretical  nature,  and  are  applic- 
able for  points  of  cut-off  in  the  two  systems  best 
adapted  for  economy,  coming  within  the  range 
of  about  i-5th  and  i-yth  cut-off,  respectively. 

THE    GOVERNOR. 

The  function  of  a  governor  is  to  act  in  ac- 
cord with  each  variation  of  load,  and  to  so  limit 
the  quantity  of  steam  to  be  admitted  to  the 
cylinder  as  to  overcome  the  resistance  of  the 
load,  and  thus  maintain  a  uniform  speed  of  ro- 
tation of  the  engine-pulley.  This  cannot  be 
properly  done  unless  the  action  of  the  gov- 
ernor is  untrammeled  by  unnecessary  friction, 
so  as  to  instantly  meet  changes  in  the  load  as 
they  occur  from  time  to  time. 


16 

We  should,  therefore,  see  that  all  of  the 
working  surfaces  of  the  governor  are  in  proper 
running  condition,  and  a  quality  of  oil  used 
for  lubrication  that  will  not  "  gum  up"  after  it 
has  been  applied  for  a  time.  We  should,  also, 
see  that  the  oil,  or  dash-pot,  is  in  good  work- 
ing order,  with  a  constant  supply  of  oil  to  gent- 
ly retard  any  sudden  fluctuation  in  the  move- 
ment of  the  regulator. 

On  engines  that  have  been  speeded  up  to  re- 
lieve their  working,  and  bring  about  an  earlier 
cut-off  (by  reason  of  an  overgrown  mill),  we 
may  possibly  find  that  the  speed  of  the  regu- 
lator has  been  allowed  to  remain  the  same  as 
before  the  change,  with  a  possible  chance  for 
the  overseer  of  weaving  to  suggest  that  the 
speed  is  not  quite  so  uniform  as  before  the  en- 
gine was  speeded  up. 

To  anticipate  any  such  comj.laint  we  should, 
while  we  are  charging  the  speed  of  engine, 
change  also  that  of  the  regulator,  and  to  over- 
come the  effect  of  a  higher  speed  of  rotation 
upon  the  elevation  of  the  balls  of  the  regulator 
(and  its  equivalent  effect  upon  the  point  of  cut- 
off), we  should  weight  the  regulator  down  (as 
shown  in  Fig.  5)  until  the  requisite  speed  is  at- 


FIG.  5. 


i8 

tained  for  the  engine.  By  doing  this  we  may 
divide  up  the  interval  of  time,  which  such  vari- 
ation and  speed  of  engine  has  upon  the  gov- 
ernor, and  its  consequent  reaction  upon  the 
cut-off  mechanism  of  engine,  to  a  shorter  de- 
gree, and  thus  control  the  point  of  cut-off  dur- 
ing one  revolution  of  governor  in  place  of  one 
and  one-half  revolutions,  which  would  be  the 
case  if  the  governor  was  allowed  to  run  slow 
on  an  engine  that  had  been  increased  in  speed. 
After  this  has  been  done,  especial  care  should 
be  taken  to  see  that  all  bearings  are  kept 
thoroughly  clean  and  free,  for  the  lubricant  to 
act,  for  this  speeding  up  is  attended  with  more 
or  less  risk,  on  account  of  imperfect  lubrica- 
tion and  non-adaptability  of  the  engine  and  its 
parts  for  such  a  change  in  the  speed. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

In  engines  of  this  type  having  a  detachable 
valve  gear  where  the  motion  for  working  the 
vaives  is  derived  from  the  action  of  an  eccen- 
tric, it  follows  that  when  there  is  no  lap  on 
the  valve  to  be  worked  off  or  the  steam  valve 
set  edge  to  edge  with  the  port  opening,  that 
the  eccentric  will  be  at  its  half-throw,  or  at 


19 

right  angles  to  that  of  the  crank  when  it  is  on 
its  center. 

During  the  rotation  of  the  shaft,  the  eccen- 
tric would  therefore  arrive  at  its  greatest  throw 
and  the  opening  motion  of  the  steam  valve 
would  cease,  and  thus  the  detaching  mechan- 
ism remain  inoperative,  while  the  crank  or 
piston  reaches,  practically  embraces,  half  stroke, 
and  any  liberation  of  the  cut-off  gear  actuated 
by  -the  governor  or  other  means  must  take 
place,  if  at  all,  before  this  point  is  reached  in 
crank  travel,  or  before  the  eccentric  com- 
mences its  return  stroke.  If  this  action  has 
not  taken  place  the  steam  valve  then  com- 
mences to  close  positively  at  a  speed  governed 
by  that  of  the  eccentric.  In  order  to  have  a 
safe  working  lap  of  the  steam  valve  before  the 
exhaust  port  upon  that  end  is  open  to  atmo- 
spheric pressure,  or  the  condenser,  and  thus 
prevent  any  blowing  through  during  the  rela- 
lative  time  of  closing  the  steam  and  opening 
the  exhaust  valves,  it  is  essential  that  the  valves 
admitting  steam  to  the  engine  should  be  given 
a  definite  advance  in  their  movement  relative 
to  that  of  the  exhaust. 

This  is  commonly  called  lap  ;  this  and  the 


20 

amount  of  it  increases  with  the  size  of  the  en- 
gine. To  neutralize  this  effect  upon  admission 
of  steam  to  the  engine,  and  have  the  valve 
gear  in  readiness  to  act  for  that  purpose,  when 
the  crank  comes  up  to  the  center,  it  is  evident 
that  the  position  of  the  eccentric  must  be  more 
than  90°  with  relation  to  the  crank  ;  or  at 
a  position  beyond  its  center  of  half  throw,  in 
order  to  remove  the  lap  given  to  the  steam 
valve,  and  to  take  a  position  to  admit  steam  to 
the  cylinder.  This,  ot  course,  reduces  the  range 
of  expansion  that  steam  may  be  carried  for 
that  end  of  the  cylinder,  by  allowing  less  time 
during  the  travel  of  the  eccentric  before  it 
reaches  its  full  throw  for  the  cut-off  to  act, 
which  must  occur,  in  this  case,  before  half 
stroke  is  reached,  or  upon  the  opening  motion 
of  the  steam  valve.  Occasionally,  we  may 
see  an  indicator  card  where  the  cut-off  had  ap- 
parently taken  place  after  more  than  half  stroke 
of  the  engine  had  been  covered,  which  is  a 
very  bad  condition,  however,  considered 
economically.  At  this  point  in  the  piston 
travel  the  velocity  is  at  its  maximum,  while  that 
of  the  valve-gear,  actuated  by  the  eccentric 
nearing  its  dead  point  of  full  travel,  is  at  its 


minimum.  These  elements,  while  working, 
as  a  matter  of  fact,  with  a  positive  ratio  of  ac- 
tion to  one  another,  admit  at  this  high  velocity 
a  certain  amount  of  piston  travel  to  take  place 
after  the  point  of  detachment  has  been  reached 
by  the  valve-gear  before  motion  can  be  im- 
parted to  the  valve  and  its  connection  sufficient 
to  cover  a  full  port,  and  prevent  further  ad- 
mission of  steam  to  the  cylinder.  This  ap- 
parent cut-off  taking  place  after  half  stroke  has 
been  reached  is  more  prominently  defined  on 
the  card  as  we  increase  the  lap  of  the  steam 
valve,  and,  by  increasing  this  lap  we  are  en- 
abled to  open  the  exhaust  valve  sooner  for  the 
return  stroke,  thus  giving  a  free  opening  for 
the  exhaust  in  relation  to  the  former,  and  nec- 
essarily enforcing  a  later  closing  of  the  valve, 
reducing  the  amount  of  compression;  this  may 
be  considered  by  a  few  objectionable,  and  we 
will  have  something  to  say  further  on  about  it. 

CHAPTER  V. 

SETTING  VALVES. 

Upon  the  wrist-plate  of  the  engine  will  be 
found  three  marks ;  one  representing  the  posi- 
tion at  half-travel,  or  center  of  motion,  while 


the  remaining  two  represent  the  extreme  mo- 
tion of  the  wrist-plate  as  actuated  by  the  ec- 
centric. , 

Upon  the  wrist-plate  stand,  or  pin,  as  the 
case  may  be,  will  be  found  a  mark  coinciding 
with  those  on  the  wrist-plate,  designating  the 
extreme  motion  and  center  of  motion  or  travel, 


FIG.  c. 

as  per  Fig.  6.  These  are  to  be  our  guides  in 
arranging  for  the  relative  time  of  action  be- 
tween the  four  valves. 

Upon  removing  the  back  bonnets  from  our 
engine  we  shall  see,  also,  a  mark  upon  each 
face  of  the  valve-port,  showing  the  location 
and  width  of  port  openings  in  relation  to  the 
cylinder  ;  thus  furnishing  a  starting  point  for 


23 

the  setting  of  the  four  valves  without  the  trou- 
ble of  removing  them  from  the  port  opening. 

Upon  the  end  of  the  valves  will  be  found, 
also,  a  mark  in  line  with  the  opening  edge  of 
the  valve,  as  shown  by  Fig.  7. 

In  preparing  to  set  valves  the  first  operation 


is  to  place  the  wrist-lever  at  half-throw,  which, 
for  horizontal  engines,  is  represented  by  the 
center  of  carrier  and  wrist-lever  pin  being 
plumb,  but  for  the  majority  of  beam  engines 
the  center  of  motion  is  represented  by  the 


24 

dotted  and  circular  marks,  as  indicated  upon 
Fig.  6. 

At  this  position,  designated  above,  the  marks 
on  the  wrist-lever  and  pin  should  correspond, 
and  the  whole  mechanism  be  secured  in  thai 
position,  by  placing  pieces  of  paper  between 
the  washer  on  the  end  of  the  pin  and  wrist- 
lever,  so  as  to  produce  friction  sufficient  to 
hold  the  whole  in  the  desired  position  when 
the  nut  on  the  end  of  the  pin  is  screwed  up. 

This  being  accomplished,  we  may  consult 
the  annexed  table  giving  the  lap  of  the  steam- 
valve,  and  the  relative  position  of  exhaust- 
valve  when  the  wrist-lever  is  at  its  center  of 
motion,  and  thus  fix  upon  the  lap  for  the 
steam-valve  and  the  position  of  exhaust-valve 
desirable  for  the  size  of  engine  under  consider- 
ation. 

By  lengthening  or  shortening  the  connec- 
tions leading  from  this  wrist-lever  to  steam- 
lever  we  bring  the  position  of  the  opening 
edge  of  the  steam-valve  to  correspond  with  the 
amount  of  lap  fixed  for  that  case,  which,  of 
course,  should  be  the  same  for  each  end  of  the 
cylinder. 

For  the  position  of  the  exhaust-valve,  by  con- 


25 

suiting  the  table  herewith  we  find  for  a  20'  en- 
gine iUh  of  an  inch  opening. 
TABLE  I. 


)SITION    OF 

STEAM     AND     EXHAUST-VALVES 

WITH     WRIST- 

LEVER  AT  ITS  CENTRE  OF  MOTION 

Size 

Laps  of 

Exhaxtt 

if  engine. 

steam  valve. 

valve  ooen. 

12" 

i" 

32" 

14" 

A" 

35" 

16" 

ft" 

-a?" 

18" 

i" 

A" 

20" 

1" 

A" 

22" 

i" 

A" 

24" 

TV 

A" 

26" 

rV 

A" 

28" 

T7a" 

nV 

30" 

i" 

4" 

32" 

I" 

»" 

34" 

i" 

5" 

36" 

2" 

i-" 

38" 

tV' 

A" 

40" 

iV 

TS8" 

42" 

T9ff" 

i3g" 

This  amount  for  each  end  of  the  cylinder  is 
obtained  by  lengthening  or  shortening  of  the 
connection  leading  from  wrist-lever  to  exhaust- 
arm,  while  the  wrist-lever  still  remains  at  its 
center  of  motion,  until  we  bring  the  marks  on 
the  end  of  the  exhaust-valve  to  the  distance  re- 
quired from  the  closing  edge  of  the  exhaust- 
port. 


26 

We  have  now  established  the  relative  time 
desirable  for  the  opening  of  the  steam,  and 
closing  of  the  exhaust-valves,  that  each  should 
act  relatively  to  one  another,  and  they  should 
remain  so  without  further  adjustment  being- 
allowed  upon  the  steam  or  exhaust  connections 
until  sufficient  reason  is  established  by  practi- 
cal working  to  warrant  a  modification  in  ad- 
justment, and  then  only  upon  a  full  considera- 
tion of  all  the  facts  attending  the  working  and 
the  service  for  which  the  engine  is  used.  When 
we  change  any  one  of  these  connections  we 
alter  its  time  of  movement,  and  destroy  the 
unison  of  action  between  the  closing  of  one 
valve  and  the  opening  of  another.  If  we 
shorten  one  steam  connection,  the  effect  is  to 
allow  that  end  to  open  quicker  than  i+s  neigh- 
bor, but  at  the  expense  of  a  reduction  in  the 
safe  working  lap  that  it  should  have  with  rela- 
tion to  the  exhaust-valve.  If  we  lengthen  the 
connection,  we  increase  the  lap  of  the  valve, 
with  the  effect  of  opening  it  later,  which  con- 
dition would  call  for  a  greater  advance  of  the 
eccentric  with  relation  to  the  crank. 

Again:  if  we  lengthen  the  connection  leading 
to  exhaust-arm,  we  add  lap  to  the  valve,  and 


27 

increase  the  amount  of  compression  at  one 
part  of  its  movement,  while  for  the  other  part 
its  time  of  opening  will  be  later  relative  to  the 
movement  of  the  piston,  and  retard  the  exhaust 
to  the  condenser. 

If  we  shorten  the  connection,  \ve  increase  the 
opening  when  the  stud-plate  is  on  its  center  of 
motion  and  consequently  decrease  the  amount 
of  compression  thereby,  with  a  corresponding 
earlier  opening  of  the  exhaust-port. 

This  additional  opening  given  to  the  valve 
by  shortening  connections  reduces,  also,  the 
lap  of  the  valve  over  the  port  that  the  exhaust- 
valve  should  have,  during  the  period  of  time 
coincident  with  that  of  the  steam  valve  when 
upon  the  point  of  opening  for  the  admission  of 
steam  to  the  cylinder. 


CHAPTER    VI. 

SETTING   VALVES    CONTINUED. 

After  we  have  " squared  the  valves,"  to  use 
a  shop  phrase,  it  is  necessary  to  look  after  the 
carrier  and  eccentric  rods,  and  see  that  their 
travel  is  equidistant  from  an  established  center 
line  of  motion  ;  giving  our  attention  first  to 
the  rod  leading  from  eccentric  to  carrier-arm, 


28 

and  termed  the  eccentric-rod.  This  rod  is  the 
first  acted  upon,  and  after  it  is  once  adjusted 
will  not  be  affected  by  any  future  adjustment 
found  necessary  for  the  carrier,  or  rod  leading 
from  carrier-arm  to  wrist-lever.  This  might 
be  found  necessary  if  we  should  reverse  the 
operation,  and  thus  make  it  necessary  to  go 
over  the  work  a  second  time. 

After  we  have  found  that  the  throw  of  the 
carrier-lever  is  equidistant  from  an  established 
plumb-line,  in  its  extreme  travel  each  way, 
brought  about  by  adjustments  in  the  length  of 
the  stub  end,  in  the  end  of  the  eccentric-rod, 
until  such  a  result  is  accomplished,  we  may 
repeat  the  operation  of  turning  the  engine  by 
hand  for  the  benefit  of  the  carrier-rod,  or  the 
connection  leading  from  the  wrist-lever  to  the 
carrier-arm,  and  so  adjust  its  length  that  the 
wrist-lever  will  travel  the  same  amount  each 
way  from  the  center  of  motion  fixed  by  the 
marks  upon  the  wrist-lever  and  pin. 

As  we  now  have  the  valves  adjusted  rela- 
tively to  one  another;  and  also  the  throw  of 
the  carrier-arm  and  wrist-lever  equally  divided 
from  center  of  motion,  we  place  the  crank 
upon  one  center  or  the  other,  and  roll  the  ec- 


zy 

centric  around  on  the  shaft  in  the  direction 
that  the  engine  is  to  run,  until  we  bring  the 
opening  edge  of  the  steam-valve  on  that  end 
of  the  engine  that  is  next  to  take  steam,  32  of 
an  inch  beyond  the  line  on  the  valve  face  rep- 
resenting the  opening  edge  of  the  port,  and 
secure  the  eccentric  in  position. 

It  is  well  then  to  bar  the  engine  around  to 
the  other  center,  and  note  if  a  similar  opening 
"is  obtained,  which  will  be  the  case  if  the  rods 
are  properly  adjusted. 

After  satisfying  ourselves  of  the  correctness 
of  the  movements,  we  may  replace  the  back 
bonnets,  and  proceed  to  adjust  the  cam-rods 
leading  from  governor  to  the  detaching  levers 
on  the  valve-gear. 

In  adjusting  these  cam-rods  we  should  first 
block  the  regulator  up  to  its  extreme  point  of 
travel,  and  secure  it  fora  time  in  that  position. 
Then  lengthen  or  shorten  the  rods  leading 
from  the  governor  to  the  valve-gear  on  each 
end  of  the  cylinder  so  as  to  bring  the  detach- 
ing apparatus  into  action,  and  allow  the  valve 
to  be  unhooked  with  the  regulator  in  that  po- 
sition, when  we  roll  the  valve  around  by 
means  of  a  starting-bar  placed  in  the  wrist- 


3° 

lever,  until  the  steam-port  is  uncovered  about 
^jth  of  an  inch.  This  adjustment  will  prevent 
the  engine  getting  beyond  the  control  of  the 
governor  if  the  load  is  suddenly  removed 
from  it  by  breaking  a  shaft  or  belt  in  the  mill, 
or  by  extreme  variation  of  the  lr»ad,  as  in  roll- 
ing-mill practice  and  similar  service. 

After  the  adjustment  of  cam-rods  has  been 
made,  we  may  lower  the  governor  down  to  its 
lowest  position,  to  see  that  the  valve-gear  will 
not  be  detached  at  that  level.  In  this  position 
of  the  governor  steam  should  follow  full  stroke, 
and  the  valves  should  not  be  liberated  until 
the  governor  has  reached  an  elevation  corre- 
sponding to  nearly  the  normal  speed  of  the  en- 
gine and  the  load  carried. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

LUBRICATION. 

The  question,  which  is  the  best  method  of 
lubricating  crank  and  cross-head  pins  of  en- 
gines running  continuously  is  not  positively 
settled  in  my  mind. 

There  is  one  thing  certain:  a  plan  must  be 
devised  that  will  admit  of  putting  any  amount 
of  lubricant  at  pleasure  upon  the  crank  and 


32 

cross-head  pins,  while  the  engines  are  running1 
at  their  regular  speed;  either  by  first  dropping 
it  upon  a  ribbon  of  canvas  and,  in  turn,  taking 
off  at  each  revolution  by  a  wiper,  secured  to 
the  mouth  of  an  oil-cup  on  the  crank  end  of 
the  connecting  rod,  and  also  for  the  cross- 
head,  as  shown  by  Fig.  8. 


FIG.  9. 

This,  I  think,  is  a  good  plan;  probably  equal 
to  any  yet  introduced  for  that  purpose,  al- 
though, in  being  exposed  to  all  the  dust  in  the 
room,  it  is,  I  think,  more  destructive  to  the 
bearings  than  the  oil-pipe  having  its  opening 
in  line  with  that  o*f  the  main  shaft  and  con- 


33 

nected  to  the  crank-pin,  ^s  in  Fig.  9.  When 
engines  are  required  to  run  only  1 1  or  1 2 
hours  per  day,  with  an  interval  at  noon  of  10  or 
15  minutes  to  fill  up  the  cups,  I  think  the  most 
satisfactory  method  of  lubrication  for  moderate 
speeds  is  oil  cups,  and  they  should  be  of  a 
sufficient  capacity  to  run  all  day  with  good  feed. 
Main  and  back  bearings  may  be  lubricated 
by  cups  having  a  sight-feed,  and  should  be 
protected  by  glass  casing  around  them,  to  pre- 
vent the  dust  from  working  down  into  the 
bearings.  Or  we  may  employ  grease  in  boxes 
on  the  main  bearings,  having  covers  to  pro- 
tect them.  In  many  cases  this  is  an  excellent 
lubricant  for  heavy  journals,  although  this 
method  is  more  expensive  to  maintain  than 
with  oil,  from  the  fact  that  the  drippings  from 
those  journals  cannot  be  used  over  again,  and 
are,  of  necessity,  thrown  away.  It  is  a  most 
excellent  plan  to  provide  drip-pans  under  the 
crank,  main  and  back  bearings,  eccentric,  and 
end  of  slides,  to  catch  all  waste  oil,  not  only  as 
a  means  to  promote  cleanliness,  but  as  a  mat- 
ter of  economy.  Such  drips  should  be  after- 
wards strained  through  cotton-waste,  and  sets 
of  sieves  having  bottoms  made  of  wire-gauze 


34 

of  different  degrees  of  fineness,  as  shown  by 
Fig.  10.  After  being  passed  through  the  strain- 
ers and  removing  all  grit  that  may  have  been 
gathered,  the  oil  may  be  used  over  again  upon 
the  heaviest  of  bearings,  without  any  fear  of 
trouble.  This  will  materially  reduce  the  oil  ex- 


FIG.  10. 

penses.  Cases  may  be  cited  where  the  waste 
oil  from  the  hangers  on  line  shafts  of  mills  has 
been  collected  and  treated  in  this  manner,  and 
afterwards  used  upon  heavy  journals  that  were 
subjected  to  high  temperatures  in  inclosed 
engine-rooms;  it  worked  quite  satisfactorily. 


35 

This  plan  is  certainly  worth  considering, 
where  an  eye  is  had  to  the  most  economical 
method  of  lubrication.  Another  plan  of 
lubricating  bearings  for  heavy  main  lines  of 
shafting  is  to  provide  rings  made  of  iron  or 
brass  about  ^ths  of  an  inch  wide,  and  laths 
thick,  revolving  upon  the  top  of  the  shaft 
through  recesses  cored  in  the  top  and  bottom 
shells,  and  of  a  sufficient  diameter  to  reach 
from  the  top  of  the  shaft  to  near  the  bottom  of 
an  oil  cavity  formed  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
pillow-block.  This  plan  maintains  at  all 
times  a  constant  and  uniform  oil-bath  for  the 
journals,  as  the  oil  is  carried  up  by  the  revolv- 
ing ring,  actuated  by  the  shaft  from  the  oil-pan 
beneath,  using  the  oil  over  and  over  again, 
without  any  perceptible  loss.  It  is  needless  to 
say  that  these  rings  and  oil-pans  should  be 
protected  from  the  dust,  and  a  ring  provided 
at  each  end  for  a  bearing  of  moderate  length, 
while  for  a  bearing  of  excessive  length  one 
may  be  provided  in  the  middle,  and  thus  insure  a 
unitorm  flow  of  oil  throughout  its  entire  length. 
As  a  matter  of  interest  bearing  upon  this  sub- 
ject, I  would  refer  the  reader  to  a  paper  pre- 
pared by  the  writer  for  the  American  Society  of 


36 

Mechanical  Engineers,  and  read  at  its  meeting 
held  at  Atlantic  City,  May  28,  1885,  wherein  is 
contained  a  tabular  statement  of  the  quantity  of 
oil  used  for  cylinder  and  general  lubrication  in 
an  engine-room,  and  for  a  number  of  mills. 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

AIR-PUMPS. 

Trouble  is  sometimes  experienced  with  the 
air-pump  of  the  condensing  apparatus  con- 
nected to  engines  ;  for  it  seems  as  though  de- 
termined to  make  the  most  disagreeable  noise 
possible  by  continual  hammering  of  its  valves  at 
each  change  in  the  direction  of  motion.  This 
state  of  things  is  most  likely  to  occur  where 
valves  of  large  area  are  operating  at  a  speed 
beyond  their  capacity  and  endurance.  Within 
the  past  few  years,  in  order  to  meet  the  de- 
mands of  changes  in  the  mill,  it  has  become  com- 
mon to  speed  up  the  engine,  but  in  overcom- 
ing the  want  of  power  there  is  a  possibility  of 
encountering  trouble  in  the  air  pump.  The 
only  remedy  is  in  relieving  the  valves  and  pre- 
venting their  hammering  while  working. 

Horizontal  pumps  are  more  susceptible  to 
this  complaint  than  vertical  pumps  having  a 


37 

short  stroke  of  the  bucket,  and  a  multiple  of 
small  valves  for  the  discharge  of  the  water  of 
condensation. 

I  have  yet  to  see  a  long-stroke  air-pump  that 
will  run  smoothly  to  the  satisfaction  of  the 
majority  of  engineers  at,  say,  55  to  60  revolu- 
tions per  minute,  where  there  is  but  one  large 
valve  provided  for  the  discharge  of  the  water 
from  the  condenser.  I  may  go  still  further  and 
insist  upon  a  number  of  small  valves  (in  place 
of  one  large  one),  on  the  system  first  inaugurat- 
ed by  the  late  Henry  R.  Worthington  on  his 
pumping-engines  for  Water-Works  service. 

This  plan  is  used  by  but  few  makers  of  air- 
pumps,  but  it  is  correct  both  in  theory  and 
practice,  and  should  be  universal  if  satisfactory 
ends  are  to  be  accomplished. 

This  plan  of  distributing  a  given  area  of  dis- 
charge among  a  number  of  small  valves  in  con- 
nection with  a  short  stroke  of  the  air-pump 
bucket  as  we  increase  the  speed  of  the  engine, 
will  insure  a  most  satisfactory  and  smooth- 
running  pump. 

For  the  ordinary  speed  of  engines  driving 
cotton-mills,  from  60  to  65  revolutions  per  min- 
ute, we  may  safely  employ  pumps  of  1 2-inch 


stroke  ;  for  75  revolutions  of  the  engine  lo-inch 
stroke,  and  for  100  revolutions  7^-inch  stroke 
should  not  be  exceeded. 

In  determining  the  proper  capacity  of  an  air- 
pump  we  may  make  it  about  ^th  of  the  capac- 
ity of  the  steam  cylinder,  for  ordinary  condens- 
ing engines  where  the  air-pump  is  single-acting. 

This  proportion  is  ample  and  should  always 
be  provided  for  to  meet  the  demands  of  a 
moderate  increase  in  the  speed  of  the  engine, 
if  such  should  occur  from  any  cause. 

To  relieve  the  hammering  of  air-pump  valves 
I  should  recommend  drilling  into  the  space 
directly  under  the  delivery-valve,  inserting  a 
%"  pipe  and  valve,  to  be  regulated  at  will  for 
the  admission  of  a  slight  quantity  of  air  under 
the  delivery-valve. 

As  this  will  be  between  the  foot-valve  and 
delivery-valve,  and  communication  with  the 
condenser  is  checked  by  the  foot-valve  and  the 
water  upon  it,  it  will  have  no  effect  upon  the 
vacuum  in  the  condenser  or  engine.  As  to  the 
regulation  of  the  valve  for  the  admission  of  air, 
experiment  will  soon  demonstrate  the  best  ad- 
justment for  working  conditions. 


39 


CHAPTER  IX. 

CARE    OF    MAIN    DRIVING    GEARS. 

Gears,  like  all  other  parts  of  machinery, 
require  looking  after,  to  see  that  a  proper 
bearing  is  maintained  throughout  the  length 
of  the  tooth  and  that  they  are  working  in 
their  most  advantageous  positions  regarding 
the  pitch  lines  of  one  another. 

While  advising  a  system  of  periodical  in- 
spection we  should,  at  the  same  time,  insist 
upon  a  thorough  lubrication  at  frequent  and 
stated  intervals. 

I  am  willing  to  admit  my  preferences  for 
gearing  for  the  majority,  and  I  may  say  all 
cases,  for  transmitting  heavy  powers  to  first 
movers  in  mills,  on  the  ground  of  less  revolv- 
ing weight,  shorter  main  shafts,  and  the  gen- 
eral compactness  of  engines,  and,  I  think, 
when  all  things  are  considered,  the  first  cost 
will  be  in  favor  of  the  geared  plant. 

But  to  come  back  to  my  text  :  this  matter  of 
lubrication  for  gears  is  a  very  simple  affair,  re- 
quiring but  a  short  time  every  other  day  for 
the  work,  which  if  carried  out,  will  reduce  to  a 
minimum  any  liability  to  abrasion,  or  teeth 


40 

getting  out  of  shape  ;  resulting  in  a  most  satis- 
factory record,  as  to  working,  for  a  'long  term 
of  years. 

This,  of  course,  upon  the  assumption  that 
the  gears  were  properly  made  and  propor- 
tioned to  the  work  to  be  performed  in  the  first 
instance.  My  experience  leads  me  to  believe 
that  the  most  satisfactory  method  of  lubricat- 
ing any  gear  is  to  apply  the  lubricant  to  the 
driving  side  of  the  tooth  by  a  paint-brush,  as 
the  gear  is  moved  slowly  around  by  hand. 
This  method  insures  placing  the  grease  where 
it  will  do  the  most  good,  and  not  on  the  ends 
of  the  teeth,  where,  it  is  more  than  likely, 
the  greater  portion  will  be  wasted  if  applied 
during  working  hours  by  pouring  it  on.  The 
proportion  of  the  mixture  which  I  have  found 
to  give  good  results  is  as  follows  : 

One  pint  of  Carolina  pitch-tar ;  one  pound  of 
plumbago,  four  pounds  of  tallow ;  melt  to- 
gether and  thin  down  with  one  pint  of  raw 
linseed  oil. 

In  the  course  of  their  journeys  many,  no 
doubt,  have  seen  gears  where  the  utmost  care 
has  been  taken  of  them,  and  others  so  bad  that 
if  any  quantity  of  grease  should  be  applied 


41 

several  times  a  day,  it  would  be  fruitless  to 
remedy  any  defects  of  construction  ;  and  to 
hope  for  smooth  running-  gears,  under  such 
conditions,  would  be  useless.  Then  again,  we 
come  across  gears  which  have  been  in  con- 
stant service  for  many  years,  with  no  percep- 
tible wear  upon  the  surfaces  of  the  teeth,  not 
even  upon  those  of  the  jack-shaft-gear,  which 
is,  of  course,  exposed  to  the  most  wear.  1 
well  remember  a  set  of  gears,  which  have 
been  in  constant  operation  for  the  past  seven- 
teen years.  The  wear  is  scarcely  perceptible 
upon  the  teeth,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that 
they  have  transmitted  about  seven  hundred 
horse  power  for  the  first  five  years  and  about 
fourteen  hundred  for  the  remaining  twelve  ; 
they  are  doing  excellent  work  to-day. 

Gears  with  wood  and  iron  teeth  working  to- 
gether are  a  very  good  institution,  where  the 
noise  of  iron  gears  would  be  objectionable  in 
a  room,  and  it  is  surprising,  sometimes,  what 
an  amount  of  power  they  will  transmit  without 
interruption,  if  properly  proportioned  to  the 
work  done,  for  a  great  number  of  years  with 
but  little  wear. 

I  remember  an  instance  where,  in  the  year 


42 

1847,  there  was  a  steam  plant  put  into  a  cotton 
mill  having  for  its  driver  an  internal  gear  with 
wooden  teeth.  This  gear  was  12  feet  diameter, 
working  into  one  of  4  feet,  the  smaller  having 
iron  teeth.  Each  gear  had  a  10  inch  face,  and 
3.14  inches  pitch. 

Since  they  were  first  started  there  have  been 
put  into  the  large  gear  less  than  a  half  dozen 
new  wooden  teeth,  and  this  was  only  brought 
about  by  repairs  to  a  segment,  broken  by 
bricks  falling  from  a  part  of  the  foundation. 
Up  to  this  date  the  original  wood  is  running  in 
the  same  gear,  and  has  been  in  constant  ser- 
vice; it  is  driving  to-day  about  170  horse 
power,  at  72  revolutions  of  engine.  This,  I 
think,  is  a  hard  record  to  beat,  and  speaks  well 
for  the  management,  as  well  as  for  the  lifetime 
of  gears  having  wooden  teeth. 

The  wood  in  this  case  was  hickory,  and 
confirms  the  opinion  that  it  is  quite  a  difficult 
question  to  answer,  as  to  what  is  the  lifetime 
of  wooden  gears  if  proper  care  is  taken  of 
them  while  in  operation,  and  well  propoi- 
tioned  in  the  first  instance. 

Foundations  for  Gears.  — There  have  been 
many  excellent  gears  ruined  when  first  started 


43 

by  being  placed  upon  shafts  much  too  small 
for  the  requirements,  or  from  being  fastened 
upon  timber  work  subject  to  shrinking  and 
swelling,  and,  consequently,  getting  out  of 
line  from  being  fastened  to  such  unstable 
work.  If  the  locality  is  such  as  to  make  it 
necessary  to  support  gears  on,  or  from  timber 
work,  the  bearings  for  the  gears  should  be  first 
secured  to  a  heavy  cast-iron  plate,  and  entirely 
independent  of  such  wood-work.  This  plate 
should  be,  in  turn,  fastened  to  the  timbers  by 
bolts  independent  of  those  for  the  bearings, 
admitting  of  a  slight  adjustment  of  the  gears 
without  disturbing  the  alignment  or  level  of 
the  foundation  plate.  This  same  plan  may  be 
adopted  when  it  is  necessary  to  remove  one  or 
both  gears,  for  repairs  to  them,  or  shafting. 
What  is  still  better,  and  I  think  the  only  proper 
way,  is  to  provide  a  good  stone  and  brick 
foundation  of  ample  weight,  when  the  condi- 
tions will  admit  of  it. 

In  that  case  the  bearings  may  be  placed  di- 
rectly upon  the  stone,  properly  dressed  off, 
and  securely  bolted  to  the  bottom  stones  in 
foundation. 

If  this  plan  is  carried  out  we  may  rest  as- 


44 

sured  that,  with  gears  of  proper  dimensions, 
suitable  to  the  work  to  be  done,  they  will  run 
smoothly  with  a  minimum  cost  for  repairs,  fric- 
tion and  maintenance  for  a  long  term  of  years. 

CHAPTER  X. 

HEATING    MILLS. 

In  the  majority  of  cotton  manufactories, 
steam  for  heating  and  drying  purposes  is  re- 
quired in  more  or  less  quantities  in  the  different 
departments.  To  supply  the  heat  for  this  work 
necessarily  involves  an  expenditure  of  money, 
or  its  equivalent,  coal,  and  it  becomes  a  ques- 
tion as  to  the  best  method  of  supplying  the 
heat  in  the  most  economical  manner.  If  a 
limited  quantity  of  steam  is  required,  at  inter- 
vals only,  not  equal  to  what  would  be  dis- 
charged on  one  exhaust  of  the  engine,  the  most 
economical  plan  would  be  to  heat  with  steam 
direct  from  the  boilers,  and  to  run  the  engine 
condensing.  Upon  the  other  hand,  if  we  have 
use  in  the  different  departments  for  all  the  ex- 
haust steam  that  would  be  discharged  from  the 
engine,  we  may  divide  the  exhaust-chest  into 
two  independent  chambers,  as  in  Fig.  n,  mid- 
way between  the  two  ports,  and  so  arrange 


45 

our  conditions  of  running  as  to  be  able  to  ex- 
haust from  one  end  of  the  cylinder  direct  into 
the  condenser,  while,  for  the  other  end,  the  ex- 
haust may  go  to  the  heating  pipes  in  the  mill. 


FIG.  11. 

Or,  we  may  run  wholly  condensing  or  wholly 
high  pressure,  as  required  by  the  varied  condi- 
tions of  the  seasons. 


46 

In  the  event  of  having  use  for  all  of  the  ex- 
haust steam  from  the  engine,  we  should,  by 
all  means,  avail  ourselves  of  the  advantages 
which  a  non-condensing  engine  offers  over  a 
condensing,  or  even  a  compound  engine,  for 
similar  work,  from  the  fact  that  we  are  able  to 
utilize  to  better  advantage  the  heat  in  the  steam 
passing  from  the  cylinder  after  it  has  done  its 
work  ;  it  is  equally  as  available  for  heating 
purposes. 

Woolen  mill  having  dye-houses  attached 
would  come  under  this  head,  and  for  that,  and 
similar  service,  the  best  compound  system  or 
condensing  engine  that  could  be  devised, 
would  prove  inferior  to  a  plain  non-condens- 
ing engine  ;  all  the  conditions  being  taken 
into  account. 

In  one  case  we  have  a  plant  for  driving  ma- 
chinery only,  with  an  expenditure  of  money 
for  fuel  for  that  purpose  ;  in  addition  we  have 
that  required  for  generating  steam  in  sufficient 
quantities  to  meet  the  demands  for  heating 
purposes  direct  from  the  boilers,  whereas  in 
the  other  case  we  install  a  high  pressure  en- 
gine, and  while  we  are  running  our  machinery 
and  using  steam  expansively  for  that  purpose, 


47 

we  are  discharging  sufficient  exhaust  steam  at 
a  pressure  of  from  i^  to  3  Ibs.  in  cotton  mills, 
and  from  4  to  8  Ibs.  for  woolen  mills.  This  is 
available  for  heating  water,  drying,  etc.,  etc. 

In  heating  by  live  steam  we  accomplish  but 
one  result,  with  no  benefit  to  be  derived  from 
its  expansive  force,  but  by  first  putting  the 
amount  of  steam  required  for  heating  purposes 
through  an  engine,  we  derive  benefit  from  its 
expansive  force.  We  shall  find  that,  for  the 
same  fuel,  we  are  enabled  to  not  only  heat,  but 
to  furnish  a  certain  amount  of  power.  This,  at 
first  sight,  may  appear  strange  reasoning,  but 
it  is  attested  by  well  established  facts  and  con- 
firmed by  the  experience  of  manufacturers  who 
have  established  the  economy  of  using  ex- 
haust-steam over  live  steam  for  heating  pur- 
poses, both  in  woolen  and  cotton  mills. 

The  whole  secret  of  using  exhaust-steam 
successfully  is  to  provide  ample  main-pressure 
lines,  and  it  is  then  available  a  long  distance 
from  the  source  of  supply. 

In  the  ordinary  construction  of  cotton  mills 
it  is  well  to  first  carry  the  main  exhaust  line  to 
the  upper  room  as  soon,  and  in  as  direct  line 
as  possible,  and  there  locate  a  back-pressure 


48 

valve  under  the  roof,  admitting-  of  a  change  of 
pressure  at  will. 

From  this  point,  we  run  to  the  center  of  the 
mill  and  across  to  each  wall.  Thus,  in  the 
upper  story  we  have  two  main  lines  for  the 
distribution,  descending  from  this  point  to  the 
basement.  From  these  upright  lines  we 
branch  off  to  each  end  of  the  mill,  and  with  a 
system  of  piping  on  each  side  of  the  room  as 
we  descend,  a  uniform  reduction  in  the  size 
may  be  made,  after  each  heating  system  has 
been  provided  for. 

The  drip  from  the  circulations  should  also 
return  to  the  basement,  where  it  should  oe 
trapped  and  collected  in  a  tank  for  feeding  Ine 
boilers.  At  the  upper  end  of  each  drip-pipe 
means  should  be  provided  for  blowing  out  any 
air  that  may  be  in  the  pipes. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

ENGINE  FOUNDATIONS. 

In  dealing  with  this  subject  the  probabilities 
are  that  a  practical  mason  would  be  the  most 
proper  person  to  give  advice,  regarding  the 
best  way  and  plan  of  preparing  an  engine 
foundation,  and  to  consider  the  most  econom- 


49 

ical  and  satisfactory  method  of  treating1  each 
individual  case,  so  that  in  the  end  it  will  be  the 
most  suitable,  and  cover  all  the  requirements 
to  which  it  is  to  be  subjected  when  finished.  It 
is  this  knowledge  of  a  full  understanding1  of 
the  necessities  of  the  case  that  first  prompts 
me  to  hold  my  peace  regarding  this  subject  for 
abler  hands,  but  upon  reflection  suggestions 
may  be  in  order,  covered  by  an  experience 
sufficient  to  form  an  approximate  judgment 
upon  the  subject. 

In  preparing  a  bottom  for  foundations  of  en- 
gines many  different  characters  of  material 
are  to  be  met  with,  and  each  requiring  for 
their  treatment  quite  a  different  mode  of  op- 
eration, so  that  one  plan  of  a  successful  char- 
acter, carried  out  at  one  place,  and  in  one 
material,  may  be  quite  inadequate  to  meet 
demands  when  carried  out  in  a  material  of  a 
different  character  in  another  locality. 

The  easiest  solution  of  this  problem,  next  to 
rock  foundation,  is  when  a  general  bottom  is 
found,  below  the  surface.  This  state  of  things 
being  established,  we  may  excavate  about  18 
inches  below  the  bottom  of  engine  foundation, 
and  after  being  leveled  off  it  should  be 


50 

thoroughly  sprinkled  with  water,  and  well 
tamped  down  with  a  heavy  beater.  This  be- 
ing done,  fill  in  about  3  inches  in  depth  of  the 
same  material  (gravel),  and  honestly  repeat 
the  operation,  antil  there  is  a  thoroughly  com- 
pact mass  of  about  18  inches  deep.  Upon  this 
base  we  may  commence  directly,  -without  any 
further  material,  the  brickwork  of  our  founda- 
tion laid  in  good  cement. 

The  width  of  base  should  be  from  2  to  3  feet 
more  than  the  width  and  length  of  the  engine 
foundation  proper,  as  shown  by  Fig.  12. 

This  foundation,  or  base,  we  may  carry  up 
about  5  courses  in  height  before  we  come  to 
the  pocket-hole  under  the  bottom  stones,  for 
the  nuts  and  washers  of  the  foundation-bolts. 
The  absence  of  heavy  footing  stones,  upon 
which  to  start  our  brickwork,  may  be  looked 
upon  with  some  distrust  by  a  few,  but  facts 
have  proven  this  arrangement  to  fully  with- 
stand the  vibration,  and  to  cover  all  of  the  re- 
quirements for  that  purpose. 

Hard-pan,  or  clay-bottom,  may  be  treated  in 
the  same  manner.  The  most  troublesome  of 
all  material  to  deal  with,  and  to  sustain  a 
foundation  upon,  is  quick-sand  impregnated 


with  spring-s  of  water,     It  is  here  that  consid- 
erable thought  should  be  given  to  the  situation 


'*V 

tsft 

^•Jj^  ^Illtl^ 

;k  t  CYLI 

?     ^^-^,    ' 

NDER  \  '• 

•: 

; 
; 

m 

^   *//>s 

1 

1 

',     :\ 

1        1 

' 

i  1 

,'•     '1 

i 

1        1 

•I 

9 

!  'I 

J^Xlvti^' 

. 
- 

1 

1        I 

^M 

«    ^  ^ 

4-r 

ji 

5 

1 

1 

1.  1 

1 

I  .   1 
1 

1 
,        1 

'      1        '         1        '         1        ''     1        '        1 

i 

~\  , 

1     1 

FIG.  12. 


52 

and  means  provided  to  safely  accomplish,  in  an 
economical  manner,  a  first-class  piece  of  work. 

The  most  successful  method  of  dealing  with 
this  class  of  material,  quick- sand,  that  has 
come  to  our  notice  is  that  devised  by  Mr.  Geo. 
H.  Corliss  for  the  bottom  of  the  foundation  for 
one  of  his  pumping-engines,  and  its  building 
upon  the  bank  of  a  river.  This  plan  consisted 
of  driving  down  any  amount  of  stone,  or 
other  material,  of  small  size,  where  required 
by  the  lines  of  the  building  and  space  covered 
by  foundation  of  engine,  by  a  weight  in  shape 
of  a  ball  weighing  about  4,000  Ibs.  falling  any 
convenient  distance,  varying  from  10  to  25 
feet.  At  each  blow  of  the  ball,  rolling  from  a 
cradle  upon  which  it  had  been  hoisted,  the 
loose  stone,  dumped  from  carts,  were  driven 
into  the  sand,  spreading  out  as  they  descended, 
and  finally  making,  as  the  work  progressed  by 
repeated  addition  of  material  and  subsequent 
blows  from  the  ball,  a  compact  mass  of 
sufficient  solidity  able'  to  stand  the  test  of 
years,  without  the  least  sign  of  settlement  in 
any  part  of  the  building,  or  foundation  of 
pump  and  engine. 

This  plan   of  such  a   novel  and  successful 


53 

character  is  susceptible  of  application  to  many 
localities  where  similar  material  is  to  be  con- 
tended with,  and  may  be  applied  with  the 
assurance  of  affording  an  economical  and, 
at  the  same  time,  a  successful  means  of 
producing  foundation  for  almost  any  construc- 
tion. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

Another  plan  is  to  excavate  to  the  proper 
depth  required  between  and  under  sheet  piling, 
driven  down  as  the  excavation  progresses  un- 
til the  depth  is  reached,  where  a  bed  of  con- 
crete, formed  by  cement,  sand,  broken  stone 
or  brick  bats,  is  placed ;  the  depth  of  same 
varying  for  each  case  to  meet  the  requirements, 
usually  from  24"  to  36'',  and  of  such  a  dimen- 
sion of  base  as  to  present  a  large  bearing  sur- 
face upon  the  sand.  Upon  this  bed  of  con- 
crete, after  sufficient  time  has  elapsed  to  allow 
the  material  to  harden  and  settle,  is  commenced 
the  brick  work  of  the  foundation. 

If  this  plan  is  properly  carried  out,  and  care 
taken  not  to  cover  too  much  space  at  a  time, 
so  as  to  allow  the  mass  to  harden  while  the 
process  is  in  operation  in  putting  down  the 


54 

concrete  bed,  very  good  results  may  be  ex- 
pected for  most  constructions. 

Crib-work,  forming  a  heavy  flooring  made 
of  timber,  is  sometimes  resorted  to  in  founda- 
tions, but  as  the  bond  between  such  material 
and  cement  is  not  of  the  best,  and  what  would 
be  desired  for  such  work,  we  cannot  consider 
this  plan  as  efficient  as  those  already  referred 
to.  Aside  from  the  difficulty  of  getting  an 
even  and  solid  bearing  for  a  timber  platform 
upon  the  sand,  any  settlement  of  a  part  of  this 
yielding  material  is  likely  to  cause  trouble  in 
the  foundation,  from  the  lateral  movement 
which  may  take  place. 

MATERIAL  FOR  FOUNDATIONS. 

The  most  satisfactory  materials,  so  far  as 
my  judgment  serves  me,  to  build  engine  foun- 
dations of,  is  a  good  quality  of  hard  burned 
brick,  well  laid  in  cement  mortar,  composed 
of  one  part  cement  to  one  of  sand,  with  plenty 
of  water  used  upon  the  brick,  and  while  laying. 

At  the  top,  for  the  parts  of  the  engine  to  rest 
jpon,  granite  blocks  of  good  size  or  iron  plates 
may  be  bedded  in  cement,  granite  being  by  all 
means  the  most  desirable. 

Similar  blocks  of  granite  should  be  provided 


55 

for  the  bottom  and  for  the  bearing  surface  of 
the  foundation  bolts.  This  is  far  superior  to 
any  wholly  stone  foundation  that  can  be 
built,  for  equal  cost 

As  a  guide  for  the  location  of  all  bolt-holes, 
throughout  the  work  of  building  the  founda- 
tion, it  is  a  very  good  plan  to  first  prepare  a 
wooden  templet,  carefully  laid  out  from  the 
drawings,  and  to  cover  all  of  the  holes  re- 
quired in  the  foundation.  This  templet  may 
be  made  of  one  inch  by  six  inch  boards,  as 
shown  by  diagram,  Fig.  13,  securely  fastened 
together,  and  permanently  suspended  from  the 
roof  overhead.  From  this  templet  may  hang 
at  all  times  plumb-bobs  over  the  center  of 
each  bolt-hole. 

When  the  brick  laying  is  commenced  above 
the  bottom  stone  short,  wooden  boxes,  three 
inches  square  and  about  eighteen  inches  long, 
may  be  used  to  build  the  brick  around,  to 
form  the  bolt-holes,  pulling  the  boxes  up  and 
centering  them  anew  as  the  work  progresses. 

Another  plan  to  locate  the  position  of  bolt- 
holes  in  a  foundation  is  first  to  esjablish  the 
center  line  of  shaft  on  the  side  walls  of  the 
buildings,  by  securing  targets  made  of  J& 


56 

boards  six  inches  wide,  and  upon  this  plainly 
mark  the  position  of  shaft,  relatively  to  walls 
of  building.  Upon  the  end  walls  of  building 

rn 


PlQ.  13. 

fasten  similar  targets,  one  to  represent  the  cen- 
ter line  of  engine  and  one  the  center   line  of 


57 

back  bearing.  These  two  centers,  of  course, 
being-  exactly  at  right  angles  to  that  represent- 
ing center  line  of  main  shaft. 

From  this  center  line  of  engine,  measure  off 
on  the  wall  at  each  end  of  the  building  the  dis- 
tance each  way  from  this  center  that  is  required 
for  the  cylinder-foot  bolts,  and  also,  from  this 
same  center  line  of  engine  measure  off  the  off- 
set for  the  main  bearing.  On  the  sides  of  the 
building  we  measure  off  an  equal  distance  each 
way  from  the  line  established  for  the  center  of 
the  shaft,  equal  to  that  required  for  the  holes  in 
the  main  and  back  bearings. 

Also,  from  center  of  shaft  we  measure  off 
the  distance  required  to  the  first  cylinder-foot 
bolt,  and  the  distance  between  center  of  front 
and  back  cylinder  bolts. 

From  these  different  positions  on  target, 
where,  it  is  assumed,  nails  are  driven,  we 
stretch  stout  lines,  and  at  their  intersection  with 
their  corresponding  line  we  hang  plumb-bobs, 
from  which  we  may  work,  throughout  the 
whole  height  of  foundat'on,  for  centering  the 
piece  of  joist,  or  box,  which  we  use  to  form 
the  bolt-holes,  a  method  already  referred  to. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

This  plan  will  look  something  like  Fig.  14. 
Of  course  these  cross  lines  should  be  placed 


FIG.  14. 

high  enough  to  be  out  of  the  way  in  walking 
round.     If  the  location  is  such  as  to  make  it 


59 

inconvenient  to  carry  out  this  plan,  a  substi- 
tute for  the  walls  of  the  building  may  be  had 
by  building  a  fence,  as  it  were,  around  the 
space  to  be  occupied  by  the  foundation,  and 
upon  which  the  various  center  lines  may  be 
marked  and  lines  stretched  accordingly,  from 
side  to  side  thereon.  This  plan  is  much  more 
convenient,  requiring  less  strength  of  line 
(which  is  an  advantage)  than  when  long  and 
wide  engine-rooms  are  to  be  met  with. 

In  bedding  the  top  as  well  as  the  bottom 
stones  down,  in  cement,  it  is  a  good  plan  to 
first  lower  the  stone  to  its  place  to  establish  its 
level,  and  be  centered  each  way,  and  after- 
wards hoisted  up  about  three  inches,  and 
blocks  put  under  each  corner  at  that  height. 

After  mixing  the  quantity  of  cement  required 
of  the  proper  consistency,  the  operation  of 
placing  it  under  the  stones,  and  leveling  off 
the  whole  surface,  should  be  done  as  expedi- 
tiously  as  possible,  and  the  stone  lowered  into 
position.  A  heavy  wooden  mall  or  piece  of 
joist  should  be  used  endwise  to  bring  it  to  a 
bearing  and  approximate  level. 

In  setting  the  top  stones  it  is  well  to  leave 
them  about  &  of  an  inch  high,  so  as  to  allow 


6o 

"bushing"  down  to  a  proper  level  all  around, 
when  the  engine  comes  to  be  located. 

Above  all  things,  in  building  an  engine  foun- 
dation, give  no  heed  to  the  person  who  sug- 
gests economizing  in  the  material  to  be  used  in 
it.  It  is  very  natural  to  suggest  lime-mortar 
in  place  of  cement,  but  if  done,  we  shall  have 
about  as  poor  a  foundation  for  the  purpose  as 
could  be  conveniently  built. 

Aside  from  the  extremely  long  time  required 
for  mortar  to  dry  out,  it  will  not  stand  the 
strain  and  jar  to  which  it  is  subjected  without 
cracking  after  a  time,  as  the  sand  is  not  nearly 
so  firm  with  lime  as  with  cement-mortar.  The 
difference  in  the  benefit  to  be  derived  by  the 
use  of  the  best  quality  of  cement  will  not 
allow,  for  a  moment,  a  comparison  between 
the  two  materials.  Instances  may  be  cited 
where  engine  foundations  have  been  built  in 
this  manner  (with  lime-mortar)  that  became  a 
source  of  annoyance  and  trouble  when  strain 
was  put  upon  the  holding-down  bolts,  by  the 
mass  giving  way  and  settling ;  so  that  it  was 
difficult  to  tell  where  the  engine  was,  as  to 
line.  Resort  had  to  be  made  to  shims  placed 
here  and  there,  between  the  engine  and  stone, 


6i 

to  make  up  for  the  deficiency  caused  by  the 
stone  taking  a  different  level  when  the  engine 
was  screwed  down. 

This  is  the  result  of  trying  to  save  the  differ- 
ence between  the  cost  of  lime  and  cement,  a 
very  small  item  where  so  much  depends  upon 
the  work  for  good  running  engines. 

As  we  approach  the  top  of  foundation,  pieces 
of  joist  4"  by  6",  should  be  built  into  the  brick- 
work at  regular  intervals,  where  most  conve- 
nient, to  which  we  may  fasten  the  floor-planks. 
And  at  the  side  of  foundation,  spaces  should  be 
left  to  receive  the  ends  of  the  floor-beams,  for 
the  engine-builder  is  the  most  proper  person  to 
say  where  these  floor-beams  should  be  set  so 
as  to  be  least  in  the  way  of  the  exhaust  and 
condenser  pipes.  These  should  be  located 
from  the  plan  furnished  with  that  object  in 
view,  so  as  to  readily  admit  making  anew  any 
joint  about  the  engine  coming  under  the  floor. 

DRESSING    DOWN    TOP    OF   FOUNDATION. 

After  allowing  sufficient  time  for  the  founda- 
tion to  season  and  dry  out,  we  may  commence 
the  operation  of  "bushing"  the  tops  of  foun- 
dation-stones to  bring  them  to  the  proper  level 
at  the  places  covered  by  the  machinery.  To 


62 

do  this  properly  we  should  provide  ourselves 
with  a  three-foot  and  a  fourteen-foot  straight- 
edge, and  a  good  spirit-level.  After  satisfying 
ourselves  as  to  the  lowest  place  in  the  different 
stones  that  is  to  be  covered  by  the  bearing 
surface  of  our  machine,  we  use  that  as  a  start- 
ing-point, from  which  we  are  to  determine  the 
proper  level  for  the  remaining  portion  of  the  sur- 
faces of  the  different  stones  in  top  of  foundation. 

This  is  best  done  by  providing  short  blocks, 
say  two  inches  square,  upon  which,  at  differ- 
ent points,  we  rest  the  ends  of  our  straight- 
edge, one  block  being  located  at  the  starting- 
point,  while  the  other  is  set  at  that  part  of  the 
stone  to  be  worked  upon,  dressing  down  with 
thebushhammer  until  we  reach  the  proper  level. 

After  a  number  of  spots  at  the  proper  level 
have  been  established  upon  each  stone,  we 
may  work  off  the  surplus  between  these  places 
to  the  best  advantage,  and  finally,  smooth 
down  the  work  to  a  bearing  by  a  judicious  use 
of  the  bushhammer,  using  as  a  guide  our  short 
straight-edge,  having  one  edge  rubbed  with  red 
chalk,  which  being  applied  to  the  stone  deter- 
mines the  high  places  that  are  to  be  removed. 


63 

MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  CORLISS  ENGINE. 


CHAPTER  I. 

The  cotton  manufacturing  company,  by 
whom  I  have  been  employed  for  the  past  eight 
years,  is  located  on  one  of  the  New  England 
rivers,  which  furnishes  very  good  water  for 
steam  purposes.  We  have  one  large  battery  of 
boilers  in  which  the  pressure  is  100  pounds  for 
the  simple  condensing  engines,  and  in  line 
with  these  there  is  a  battery  of  six  boilers,  in 
which  the  usual  pressure  is  125  pounds  for  the 
compound  engine. 

All  of  these  boilers  are  return  tubular,  with 
overhanging  fronts,  and  are  60  in.  diameter, 
with  76  tubes  3^  in.  diameter  and  21  feet  long. 
The  distance  from  grate  to  shell  of  boiler  is  24 
in. 

I  am  particular  to  give  these  dimensions  for 
the  reason  that  I  have  found  them  very  good 
proportions,  with  the  exception  of  distance 
from  grate  to  boiler,  which  should  be  some- 
thing more,  on  account  of  the  gaseous  nature 
oi  the  Cumberland  coal  that  we  use. 

We  have  a   small  independent  steam  pump 


64 

connected  to  tanks,  for  weighing  feed  water, 
and  other  instruments  for  testing  the  evapora- 
tive efficiency  of  the  boilers,  and  trying  differ- 
ent kinds  of  fuel. 

Numerous  tests  have  proved  that  the  best 
method  of  burning  bituminous  coal  is  the  one 
mentioned  in  The  Engineer  of  October  18,  1890, 
p.  90,  "  The  Smoke  Nuisance"  as  the  slow-firing 
method.  I  allow  but  three  shovels  full  of  coal 
to  each  furnace  door  at  a  time,  and  alternate 
from  right  to  left  hand  door  at  each  firing. 
This  does  not  prevent  all  smoke  by  any  means, 
but  there  is  not  an  objectionable  amount  ap- 
pearing at  top  of  the  chimneys  at  any  time. 

The  method  of  coking  the  coal  in  front  of 
the  fire,  I  have  found  very  objectionable  when 
tried  in  connection  with  an  evaporative  test. 
The  fireman  cannot  see  the  body  of  his  fire  and 
there  are  sure  to  be  thin  places  where  cold  air 
rushes  through  ;  and  besides  this  it  is  very  de- 
structive to 'the  front  of  the  furnace. 

Leaving  the  fire  door  open  a  little  for  a  few 
moments  after  each  firing  reduces  the  amount 
of  smoke,  but  gives  a  lower  result  of  water 
evaporated  on  a  week's  trial.  I  have  also 
carefully  tried  introducing  air  through  perfor- 


65 

ated  plates  in  the  bridge  wall.  This  appeared 
to  promise  success,  judging  by  the  appearance 
of  the  fire  as  seen  through  sight-holes  on  back 
end  of  boiler,  but  I  found  by  my  testing  ap- 
paratus that  this  view  of  the  fire  was  very  mis- 
leading. 

The  best  results  will  be  found  with  moderate- 
ly thick  fires,  and  while  burning  from  12  to  13 
pounds  of  coal  per  square  foot  of  grate  per 
hour. 

I  have  met  many  engineers  who  seem  to 
think  that  slow  combustion  means  more  per- 
fect combustion.  I  have  found  the  reverse  to 
be  true.  A  high  firebox  temperature,  a  clean 
boiler,  and  low  temperature  of  uptake,  is  what 
is  wanted. 

All  engineers  who  possibly  can  should  have 
apparatus  for  weighing  feed  water  and  making 
evaporative  tests,  as  the  amount  of  steam  used 
for  power  and  other  purposes  is  liable  to  con- 
siderable variation,  and  the  weight  of  coal 
alone  does  not  always  give  a  correct  result. 

By  careful  trials  one  can  readily  find  out 
what  is  best  in  any  given  case,  and  will  un- 
doubtedly find  the  unexpected  sometimes,  and 
thereby  make  a  handsome  saving  in  the  coal 


66 

bills.  These  tests  should  not  be  less  than  one 
week  in  duration. 

I  have  found  it  best  to  leave  the  air  passages 
in  furnace  doors  open  at  all  times,  while  burn- 
ing bituminous  coal.  The  draught  is  much 
better  regulated  by  an  automatic  damper  regu- 
lator than  by  hand. 

My  experience  with  shaking  grates  has  not 
been  very  favorable.  By  a  careful  trial  of  one 
week,  of  one  of  the  best  rocking  grates  in  the 
market,  I  failed  to  find  any  gain  in  economy  of 
coal ;  in  fact  a  slight  reduction  in  pounds  of 
feed  water  evaporated.  This  was  probably 
owing  to  the  reduced  grate  surface,  as  the 
maker  put  dead  plates  three  inches  wide  on 
sides  and  back  of  furnace. 

We  have  for  a  number  of  years  used  plain 
grates  in  sections  about  6  inches  wide  and  21 
inches  long,  air  opening  $4  inch,  width  of  metal 
bars  j4  inch.  I  see  no  reason  why  they  should 
not  last  ten  years. 

In  boiler  rooms  where  there  is  shafting,  the 
Davis  double  plunger  feed  pump  has  proved  to 
be  very  reliable  and  durable  ;  6  inch  plungers 
should  not  be  run  over  25  strokes  per  minute. 
I  would  say  avoid  single  plunger  pumps,  both 


67 

pov/er  and  steam,  on  account  of  the  pulsations 
of  the  water  in  the  pipes,  and  especially  so  if 
you  have  a  fuel  economizer  or  large  feed  water 
heater,  as  all  the  water  contained  in  these 
must  come  to  rest  at  each  change  of  stroke, 
and  must  be  made  to  move  on  again  as  the 
plunger  advances,  while  the  duplex  pump 
keeps  the  water  steadily  advancing  all  the 
time. 

The  feed  pipe  should  not  be  less  than  two 
inches  in  diameter,  and  is  best  when  made  of 
brass,  and  introduced  into  the  boiler  on  the 
top  at  back  end  over  the  steam  space.  Where 
the  draught  is  sufficient  the  fuel  economizers, 
so-called,  are  true  to  name.  The  reduction  in 
draught  will  amount  to  about  5-iooths  of  an 
inch  of  water,  and  at  this  mill  heats  the  feed 
water  from  11.0  to  220  degrees. 

All  valves  on  water  pipes  should  be  of  the 
straight-way  pattern.  I  use  a  gate-valve  for 
both  steam  and  water,  and  provide  all  steam 
valves  over  3  inches  with  a  ^  inch  by-pass, 
by  which  steam  can  be  let  into  the  pipe  with- 
out shock,  which  is  very  destructive  some- 
times. 

The  following  is  a  copy  of  one  of  the  many 


68 

tests  that  I  have  made  :  There  was  no  special 
preparation  made  for  this  trial,  and  no  allow- 
ance made  for  moisture  in  the  coal.  The  coal 
mcludes  that  used  to  get  up  steam  from  cold 
water  and  banking  fires  : 

Duration  of  test 2  days. 

Boiler  pressure  in  pounds 101 

Temperature  of  feed  in  degrees 130 

Temperature  escaping  gases 392 

Water  evaporated  in  pounds 83,034 

Coal  consumed  in  pounds 8,397 

Weight  of  combustible  in  pounds 7.891 

Coal  per  square  foot  of  grate  per  hour 13.1 

Water  evap.  per  pound  coal,  (actual  conditions)       9,888 

Water  evap.  per  pound  combustible 10,522 

Water  evap.  per  pound  coal  from  and  at  212 ....  11,173 
Water  evap.  per  pound  combustible  from  and 

at  212 11,889 

Percentage  of  water  in  sleam 0.5 


CHAPTER  II. 

In  the  las.  chapter  nothing  was  said  about 
the  quality  of  steam  produced.  This  is  a 
point  too  frequently  overlooked  by  engineers. 
If  you  have  upright  boilers  which  moderately 
superheat  the  steam,  you  are  all  right  in  this 
respect,  but  with  horizontal  tubulars  there  is  a 
strong  probability  of  there  being  too  much 


69 

moisture  in  the  steam.  This  can  be  determined 
by  the  calorimeter  test,  which  has  been  fully 
explained  in  engineering  papers.  I  do  not 
consider  that  high  evaporative  results  from 
horizontal  boilers  are  of  any  value,  unless  ac- 
companied with  the  calorimeter  test,  showing 
that  the  steam  produced  is  quite  dry. 

This  tendency  of  horizontal  boilers  to  fur- 
nish wet  steam  is  the  reason  why  I  prefer  well 
designed  uprights  when  high  steam  is  required 
for  compound  engines.  One  gauge  of  water 
while  engines  are  running,  and  continuous 
feed,  will  prevent  an  excess  of  water  passing 
away  with  the  steam  in  boilers  of  good  design. 
I  depend  entirely  on  gauge  cocks,  having  no 
glass  gauges  whatever.  These  boilers  in  my 
charge  are  over  10  years  old,  and,  all  told, 
there  are  over  22  hundred  tubes ;  not  one  of 
them  has  ever  leaked  from  any  cause. 

We  are  all  aware  that  properly  covered  pipes 
contribute  largely  to  the  economic  results.  I 
have  found  that  hair  felt,  with  asbestos  mill 
board  next  to  the  pipe,  makes  a  good  cover- 
ing, but  for  a  short  time  only.  The  asbestos 
does  not  prevent  the  felt  from  burning  on  top 
of  pipe ;  in  6  months  it  will  be  found  nearly, 


70 

if  not  quite,  destroyed,  and  on  the  bottom  it 
will  be  hanging  loose  from  the  pipe.  On 
flanged  pipe  I  use  one  inch  each  of  Nos.  i  and 
2  asbestos  cement,  and  outside  of  this,  one 
inch  of  hair  felt.  This  brings  the  covering  out 
even  with  the  flanges ;  then  all  is  covered 
with  heavy  cotton  cloth,  and  for  the  boiler 
room  it  is  whitewashed  ;  in  the  engine  rooms 
it  is  covered  with  a  jacket  of  Russia  iron,  and 
brass  bands  to  break  joints. 

In  regard  to  the  size  of  steam  pipe  to  the 
engine,  I  would  say :  Do  not  be  governed  by 
the  capacity  of  opening  into  the  cylinder  or 
the  valve  furnished  by  the  builders.  The  high 
piston  speeds  now  so  common  require  larger 
pipes,  and  if  they  are  long,  considerably  larger 
diameter  should  be  used.  The  Corliss  cross 
compound  engine,  of  which  I  am  about  to 
write,  has  cylinders  22"  +  40"  by  60"  stroke, 
and  runs  60  revolutions  per  minute.  The 
throttle  is  7"  and  the  steam  pipe  about  200  feet 
long.  I  enlarged  from  the  throttle  with  a  short 
piece  of  cast-iron  pipe  up  to  10",  and  the  bal- 
ance is  made  of  10"  boiler  tubing  in  long 
lengths,  with  heavy  cast-iron  flanges  riveted 
on.  All  bends  are  made  of  copper.  Such  a 


steam  pipe  as  this  is  far  more  reliable  for  high 
pressures  than  cast-iron  or  common  wrought 
pipe  with  screwed  joints. 

The  cylinders  of  this  engine  are  proportioned 
in  this  way  on  account  of  the  unusual  amount 
of  steam  required  for  use  in  the  mills,  which  is 
taken  from  the  receiver.  Besides  seven  slash- 
ers (which  turn  off  something  over  ninety 
thousand  pounds  of  yarn  each  week),  there 
are  eighty  vapor-pots  in  the  weaving  rooms, 
all  of  which  are  supplied  from  this  source. 
The  usual  pressure  in  receiver  is  five  pounds. 
This  engine  has  been  running  two  years,  and 
is  connected  to  ten  water-wheels  of  180  h.  p. 
each.  There  are  no  regulators  on  the  water- 
wheels,  the  engine  governor  controlling  the 
speed  of  all.  From  this  and  other  causes,  the 
load  is  quite  variable,  and  with  full  river  the 
engine  is  sometimes  underloaded. 

As  left  by  the  builders,  I  at  first  had  trouble 
to  maintain  an  even  pressure  in  the  receiver, 
and  furnish  steam  for  use  in  the  mills,  as  the 
point  of  release  on  both  cylinders  was  deter- 
mined by  the  governor,  and  no  way  was  pro- 
vided to  change  the  cut-off  on  l.p.  cylinder. 
This  would  be  correct  under  certain  conditions, 


72 

but  not  so  here,  as  the  amount  of  steam  taken 
from  the  receiver  is  subject  to  considerable 
variation,  and  this,  together  with  changes  in 
power  required,  made  it  necessary  to  make  an 
alteration.  The  regulator  shaft  connecting  one 


cylinder  with  the  other  was   cut  in  two  and 
connected  as  shown  by  sketch. 

By  turning  the  nut  between  the  levers  to  the 
right  or  left,  the  l.p.  cylinder  is  made  to  take 


73 

more  or  less  steam,  as  the  case  may  be,  and 
at  the  same  time  it  is  controlled  by  the  regu- 
lator. 

During  a  large  part  of  the  time  the  l.p.  cyl- 
inder is  made  to  cut  off  somewhat  earlier  than 
would  be  the  case  if  a  low  steam  consumption 
by  this  engine  alone  was  desirable.  It  is  the 
total  coal  used  that  interests  the  stockholders. 
During  the  season  of  low  river,  when  other  en- 
gines are  furnishing  the  steam  for  use  in  the 
mills,  and  this  engine  is  running  under  favor- 
able conditions,  the  coal  consumed  during  a 
test  of  one  week,  including  that  used  for  bank- 
ing fires  at  night,  was  1.73  Ibs.  per  h.p.  per 
hour. 

The  exhaust  steam  from  the  duplex  feed 
pump  on  this  trial  was  used  to  heat  the  feed 
water  for  another  set  of  boilers  than  those  from 
which  the  engine  steam  was  taken.  As  run- 
ning at  present — with  an  overflowing  river, 
and  steam  taken  from  the  receiver  for  the 
mills,  as  mentioned  above — the  coal  used  per 
h.p.  per  hour  varies  from  1.9  to  2.  i  Ibs. 

The  variations  in  load  sometimes  caused 
the  receiver  pressure  to  fall  quite  low,  un- 
noticed by  the  engineer.  This  made  bad  work 


74 

and  loss  in  tne  slasher  room.  To  prevent  this 
loss,  and  give  us  timely  notice,  I  connected  a 
small  whistle  to  pipe  leading  to  slashers,  as 
shown  by  sketch. 

A  pressure  of  5  pounds  holds  the  valve  down 
to  its  seat,  but  at  4}^  pounds  the  weight  lifts 
the  valve,  and  blows  the  whistle  before  there 
is  any  cause  for  complaint  in  the  mill,  and  the 


engineer  has  time  to  make  the  proper  adjust- 
ment of  the  cut-off  on  the  l.p.  cylinder,  or 
open  the  by-pass  valve  into  receiver. 

The  air  pump  is  the  regular  Corliss  pattern, 
34  in.  by  12  in.  stroke.  A  part  of  the  over- 
flow, with  the  water  of  condensation  from 
the  receiver,  is  returned  to  boiler  room.  A 


75 

^  in.  pipe  from  the  overflow  leads  up  to  the 
engine  room,  into  which  a  thermometer  is 
inserted,  and  returns  below  to  condenser,  thus 
showing  temperature  of  overflow  water  at  all 
times. 

A  small  pipe,  admitting  a  little  air  into  the 
channel  way,  effectually  stops  the  pound  that 
is  so  common  with  this  kind  of  air  pump. 

As  the  machinery  in  the  mills  is  run  at  as 
high  speed  as  possible,  it  is  very  important 
that  the  engine  regulation  should  be  as  perfect 
as  it  can  be  made. 

This  engine  should  make  a  full  revolution 
each  second;  if  it  should  lall  short  of  TOO  of 
a  revolution  in  each  second  throughout  the 
day  there  would  be  a  very  perceptible  diminu- 
tion in  product.  If  it  should  fall  short  this 
much  during  an  hour  it  is  so  much  lost;  it 
should  not  be  made  up  in  the  next  hour. 

The  Corliss  governor,  unaided,  will  not 
regulate  as  closely  as  it  is  desirable  to  run  in  a 
cotton  mill. 

I  have  found  the  Gale  governor  attachment 
to  be  a  great  help,  but  even  this  useful  and 
neat-looking  little  device  needs  some  attention 
if  a  strictly  uniform  rate  of  speed  is  desired, 


76 

I  suppose  the  Moscrop  recorder  is  an  excellent 
thing  to  show  the  variations  in  the  speed.  A 
good  many  years  ago,  before  I  ever  heard  of  a 
"Moscrop,"  or  other  device  for  this  purpose,  I 
made  a  little  machine,  which  is  still  doing 
splendid  service.  On  the  shaft  of  the  air  pump 
rocker  is  fixed  a  small  adjustable  arm  carryii.g 
a  ratchet,  which  picks  one  tooth  at  each  rev- 
olution of  the  engine  in  a  ratchet  wheel  of  an 
equal  number  of  teeth,  with  revolutions  de- 
sired by  the  engine  in  one  minute.  On  the 
shaft  of  this  ratchet  wheel  there  is  a  pair  of 
mitre  gears,  by  which  this  movement  is  taken 
up  into  the  engine  room,  where,  at  a  con- 
venient place,  there  is  a  clock  dial  with  suitable 
train  of  gears  to  run  a  minute  and  "second 
hand." 

After  the  engine  is  started,  the  hands  on 
this  dial  are  set  to  exactly  agree  with  the 
engineer's  time.  After  an  hour's  run,  if  there 
is  a  gain  or  loss  of  one  second,  which  means 
with  this  engine  one  revolution,  it  is  easily  de- 
tected and  corrected.  This  dial  makes  no 
record  of  the  revolutions  for  yesterday  or  last 
week,  but  as  it  enables  us  to  run  just  right  all 
the  time;  it  is  very  satisfactory.  The  engine 


77 

register  or  counter  shows  each  day  the  num- 
ber of  revolutions,  and  this  is  recorded  for  each 
engine,  with  all  other  matter  of  interest,  in  a 
logbook  kept  for  this  purpose. 


These  cards  were  taken  November  4.    There 
was  not  sufficient  load  for  the  engine  to  show 


78 

its  best  work.  The  cards  from  the  other  ends 
are  as  nearly  the  same  as  can  be.  Springs  in 
indicators,  60  and  12  to  the  inch. 

CHAPTER  III. 

The  compound  from  which  the  indicator 
cards  in  the  last  chapter  were  taken  is  said  to 
be  Mr.  Corliss's  final  and  perfected  engine.  It 
certainly  is  very  economical  in  the  use  of 
steam,  and  many  parts  are  excellent  in  design, 
but  there  are  others  which  are  not  quite  per- 
fect. 

There  is  no  means  provided  to  raise  the 
pistons  as  they  wear  below  the  center;  the 
steam  packing  rings  are  let  into  the  head, 
there  being  no  bull-ring.  The  piston  can  be 
turned  around  on  the  rod,  which  will  make  up 
for  the  wear  on  the  packing  rings,  but  not  for 
the  wear  of  the  cylinders.  The  slides  are  very 
much  too  narrow  ;  there  is  not  sufficient  bear- 
ing surface  for  heavy  loads.  The  pillow  blocks 
are  all  that  could  be  desired,  24  in.  length  of 
bearing  for  an  n  in.  shaft.  The  hand  hole  in 
the  side,  which  enables  the  engineer  to  dis- 
cover any  heating  before  it  has  pervaded  the 
whole  mass,  is  a  very  good  thing.  The  shaft 


79 

is  15  in.  in  diameter  in  the  center,  and  carries 
a  25  ft.  wheel,  weighing  fifty  thousand  pounds. 

The  valve  gear  is  very  peculiar,  and  different 
from  any  other  Corliss  engines  made.  The 
wrist  plates  are  nearly  as  large  as  the  sides  of 
the  cylinders,  and  the  valve  connections  are, 
consequently,  very  short;  this  gives  the  valve 
a  very  quick  movement.  The  vacuum  dash- 
pots  close  the  valves  very  quickly,  as  will  be 
seen  by  the  cards.  The  piston  rods  have  U.  S. 
metallic  packings,  and  the  valve  rods  are 
packed  with  Garlock's  patent  sectional  rings. 

This  engine  has  run  two  years,  and  has  been 
stopped  but  once  during  working  hours  from 
causes  arising  in  engine  room.  One  of  the  ad- 
justing screws  on  the  cross  head  gibs  worked 
loose  soon  after  the  engine  was  left  by  the 
builders,  and  it  was  necessary  to  stop.  I  have 
put  preventers  on  all  of  these  screws,  as  I 
found  that  they  had  a  tendency  to  work  loose. 

I  saw  an  item  in  the  daily  papers  of  an  en- 
gine of  this  type  running  away  and  breaking 
up  badly ;  the  question  has  been  asked,  why 
the  governor  did  not  take  care  of  it  ?  I  should 
say  that  the  cut-off  rods  were  so  set  that  when 
the  governor  balls  were  at  their  extreme  height, 


8o 

the  low-pressure  cylinder  would  still  take  some 
steam  as  long  as  there  was  any  in  the  receiver, 
and  there  would  be  enough  (with  the  vacuum) 
to  do  mischief. 

There  are  some  features  about  another  en- 
gine, in  my  care,  which  may  possibly  be  of 
interest  to  engineers,  who  may  have  similar 
conditions. 

This  is  a  double  high-pressure  condensing 
engine,  having  cylinders  26  in.  by  60  in.  stroke, 
running  58  revolutions  per  minute;  built  at  the 
Corliss  Steam  Engine  Co.'s  Works,  in  1881.  It 
can  be  run  j^,  ^,  %£,  or  all  condensing. 

During  a  few  weeks  of  very  low  river  in  the 
summer  we  run  all  condensing,  in  order  to  get 
full  power,  sometimes  as  much  as  950  h.p.  I 
have  never  been  able  to  test  the  steam  con- 
sumption with  this  load,  but  it  is  not  of  these 
conditions  that  I  am  about  to  write. 

This  engine  runs  in  connection  with  six 
water  wheels  of  1 80  h.p.  each.  Several  years 
ago,  during  the  season  of  high  water,  this  en- 
gine was  disconnected  from  the  mill,  the 
waterwheels  doing  all  the  work,  the  steam  for 
the  slashers  and  vapor  for  weaving  rooms  be- 
ing furnished  direct  from  *he  boilers.  As  there 


8i 

was  not  sufficient  power  in  the  wheels  to 
insure  good  regulation,  there  was  a  diminished 
product  in  the  mill.  The  slashers  and  vapor- 
pots  were  then  piped  for  exhaust  steam,  and 
one  cylinder  only  of  the  engine  was  run  non- 
condensing,  with  five  pounds  back  pressure. 
Sufficient  water  was  taken  from  the  water- 
wheels  to  give  the  engine  a  load  of  100  to  150 
h.p.  The  result  was  very  satisfactory,  perfect 
regulation  and  full  product  in  the  mill,  and  less 
coal  consumed  than  was  required  to  do  the 
mill  work  with  direct  steam.  The  gates  on  the 
wheels  were  so  regulated  that  there  was  very 
little,  if  any,  steam  escaped  through  the  back 
pressure  valve. 

For  the  past  two  years,  owing  to  the  en- 
largement of  the  mill,  the  load  for  one  cylinder 
was  such  that  there  was  about  twice  as  much 
exhaust  steam  as  the  mill  required.  Besides 
this  loss  of  steam,  there  were  many  days  dur- 
ing the  last  part  of  the  afternoon  when  the 
river  was  somewhat  low,  that  the  load  was  far 
too  much  for  one  cylinder,  while  in  the  morn- 
ing one  cylinder  was  ample.  I  then  com- 
pounded this  engine  as  shown  by  sketch. 

A  piece  of  20  in.  pipe  was  placed  in  the  ex- 


82 


haust  from  the  high-pressure  cylinder,  which 
answers  for  a  receiver  ;  from  this  we  piped  to 
the  two-way  valve  on  top  of  low-pressure 
cylinder.  The  throttle  that  was  taken  from 
this  cylinder  was  placed  in  this  new  pipe. 
For  more  than  two  years  this  engine  has  run 


with  this  arrangement,  giving  perfect  satisfac- 
tion. 

Besides  running  very  economically  with  light 
load,  one  important  advantage  is  that  I  always 
have  the  low-pressure  cylinder  connected,  and 
ready  for  heavy  loads,  and  the  change  is  made 


83 

from  compound  to  simple  condensing,  while 
running,  and  without  any  perceptible  change 
in  the  speed. 

The  amount  of  power  derived  from  the  low- 
pressure  cylinder  i.s  quite  small,  from   60  to  90 


h.p.,  but  this  is  obtained  from  steam  that  would 
otherwise  be  thrown  -away,  and  the  5  pounds 
back  pressure  must  be  maintained.  When  run- 
ning compound,  with  load  of  400  h.p.  or  under, 


84 

and  steam  taken  from  the  receiver  for  four 
slashers  and  twenty  vapor-pots,  the  coal  re- 
quired is  2.25  pounds  per  h.p.  per  hour.  With 
one  cylinder  non-condensing,  and  furnishing 
the  same  amount  of  steam  for  use  in  the  mill, 
and  the  other  cylinder  condensing-,  the  coal  re- 
quired is  2.69  Ibs.  per  h.p.  per  hour.  The  cards 
shown  were  taken  November  8,  with  light  load. 
The  springs  used  were  40  and  1-2  to  the  inch. 
I  am  aware  that  these  are  not  perfect  cards, 
but  I  think  it  will  be  generally  admitted  that 
the  result,  taken  as  a  whole,  is  very  good. 

As  to  setting  Corliss'  valves,  I  can  add  noth- 
ing to  the  full  and  correct  article  published  in 
The  Engineer,  by  John  T.  Henthorn,  mechanical 
engineer,  of  Providence. 

When  starting,  as  soon  as  the  engine  has 
made  two  or  three  revolutions,  I  raise  the  gov- 
ernor a  little,  by  a  thumb  nut,  in  order  to  make 
the  cut-off  operate.  This  diminishes  the  liabil- 
ity to  take  water  from  the  boilers  and  greatly 
aids  the  engineer  in  getting  a  vacuum. 

The  noise  from  the  dashpots  was  somewhat 
harsh,  and  this  was  remedied  by  bolting  a  small 
box-shaped  casting  over  the  outlet  holes,  and 
from  this  running  a  i^  in.  pipe,  with  cock  in 


it  below  the  floor.  All  the  principal  parts  of 
the  engines  in  my  care  are  oiled  by  stationary 
sight  feed  cups.  The  cylinder  oil  is  introduced 
at  each  end  of  the  cylinders.  The  oil  for  other 
parts  I  usually  mix  3  parts  paraffine  to  one  of 
sperm,  and  one  of  neatsfoot.  This  mixture 
costs  32  cents  per  gallon,  xnd  will  run  the 
heaviest  shaft  and  not  gum. 

Usually  a  very  small  quantity  of  oil  is  suffi- 
cient for  crank-pins  and  cross-head  wrists,  but 
my  experience  has  taught  me  that  main  bear- 
ings should  have  a  very  generous  quantity  reg- 
ularly applied,  carefully  collected  in  drip  pans, 
and  strained  and  used  again.  With  an  expe- 
rience of  over  thirty  years,  I  have  never 
stopped  an  engine  for  a  hot  pillow-block.  The 
cost  of  all  the  oil  for  the  26  in.  double  engine 
mentioned,  including  two  jack  shafts,  is  twenty- 
seven  cents  per  day.  The  compound  engine 
requires  about  the  same  quantity.  A  pair  of 
23in.  x  6oin.  engines,  running  66  revolutions 
per  minute,  are  oiled  for  seventeen  cents  per 
day. 

Some  experience  with  the  indicator,  together 
with  my  observation  of  the  running  of  many 
non-condensing  Corliss  engines,  leads  me  to 


86 

the  opinion  that  far  more  than  one-half  of 
these  engines  are  running  under-loaded.  To 
speak  more  correctly,  I  would  say  that  the  ma- 
jority of  engineers  carry  a  higher  pressure  of 
steam  than  their  work  calls  for. 

This  may  be  equally  true  of  other  automatic 
engines,  but  I  have  found  it  so  frequently  the 
case  in  Corliss  engine  rooms,  and  so  difficult 


Scale  50 


to  convince  engineers  of  their  error,  that  I 
mention  it  here.  The  first  card  taken  is  gen- 
erally like  the  one  I  have  constructed  for  the 
purpose  of  illustration.  It  will  be  seen  that 
the  fly-wheel  is  driving  the  piston  during  one- 
half  of  the  time.  The  pressure  of  the  steam  on 
the  piston  is  like  a  series  of  kicks,  but  it  is  not 


87 

best  to  let  it  kick  so  hard  that  it  will  kick  back. 
The  strain  on  the  crank  pin  is  greater,  and  the 
valves  work  harder  while  running  in  this 
way. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Another  very  important  reason  why  the  en- 
gines should  not  be  operated  in  this  manner, 
is  the  greatly  increased  cylinder  condensation, 
owing  to  too  great  range  of  temperatures. 

The  difference  between  the  temperature  of 
the  initial  pressure  of  this  diagram  and  the  ab- 
solute terminal  pressure  is  about  140  degrees  ; 
whereas  if  the  steam  had  been  lower,  say  60 
pounds  total,  and  the  terminal  about  the  same 
as  the  back  pressure,  the  difference  in  the  tem- 
peratures would  have  been  only  80  degrees. 
It  will  be  seen  that  there  is  a  difference  of  60 
degrees  in  favor  of  running  with  the  lower 
steam  pressure ;  nearly  as  much  as  there 
is  between  a  winter  and  a  summer  day. 

I  do  not  wish  to  be  understood  as  advocat- 
ing low  pressures,  but  would  say — do  not  al- 
low a  loop  in  the  card  while  the  engine  is  do- 
ing regular  work.  This  may  appear  to  many 
as  an  extreme  case,  but  I  have  frequently 


found  the  loop  in  the  card  from  engines  which 
were  represented  by  engineers  as  heavily 
loaded. 

There  are  a  great  many  old  Corliss  engines 
that  have  the  packing  rings  set  out  by  set 
screws  against  elliptic  springs.  I  would  ad- 
vise engineers  who  can't  get  anything  better 
than  this,  to  be  extremely  careful  when  setting 
out  these  screws.  The  best  way  is  to  stop  the 
engine  on  the  front  centre,  disconnect  the  main 
rod,  and  pull  the  piston  to  the  back  end  ;  then 
it  can  be  ascertained  by  moving  the  piston 
back  and  foith  when  it  is  just  right.  It  should 
be  so  easy  that  one  man  can  readily  move  a  20 
inch  piston  in  the  cylinder. 

The  Corliss  engines  of  later  make  have  a 
single  packing  ring,  in  small  sections,  let  into 
a  junk  ring.  This  is  a  great  improvement 
over  the  other,  as  it  requires  no  setting  out, 
and  runs  very  satisfactorily ;  but  judgment 
should  be  used  in  setting  up  the  screws  for  the 
purpose  of  centering  the  piston  head.  These 
are  frequently  set  up  so  hard  as  to  strain  the 
junk  ring  out  of  round.  If  the  junk  ring  nearly 
fills  the  bore  of  the  cylinder  (as  it  should),  this 
strain  causes  it  to  bear  verv  hard  in  these  four 


89 

places,  causing  undue  friction,  and  sometimes 
injury. 

The  follower  of  this  kind  of  piston  is  usually 
secured  by  large  steel  bolts.  I  have  no  doubt 
that  many  engineers  have  had  serious  trouble 
in  starting  these  bolts.  I  remedy  this  by  coat- 
ing the  bolts  with  a  mixture  of  Dixon's  graphite 
and  cylinder  oil.  This  mixture  is  just  the 
thing  for  pipe  and  other  bolts  about  boilers, 
which  are  sure  to  stick  unless  something  of 
this  kind  is  used. 

We  are  frequently  told  by  the  newspapers 
that  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  accidents 
in  engine  and  boiler  rooms  are  the  result  of 
carelessness,  and  right  here  they  stop  and 
leave  the  general  reader  with  the  impres- 
sion that  it  is  the  engineer  in  charge  who 
is  responsible.  Carelessness  and  ignorance 
on  the  part  of  builders,  and  indifference 
on  the  part  of  owners,  cause  the  greater  part 
of  the  accidents.  The  engineer  is  gener- 
ally expected  to  get  along  with  what  he  has, 
and  very  frequently  cannot  clean  his  boilers 
for  lack  of  opportunity.  I  find  in  a  copy  of 
The  Locomotive  the  monthly  report  of  the  inspect- 
ors of  the  Hartford  Steam  Boiler  Insurance  Co., 


9° 

the  following  items  :  "Cases  of  defective  rivet- 
ing, 1,658  ;  cases  of  deficiency  of  water,  6." 

Engineers  and  their  assistants  were  faithfully 
attending  to  their  boilers  that  month,  and  all 
the  reports  show  about  the  same  proportion. 

It  is  very  much  the  same  in  the  engine  room, 
but  we  have  no  insurance  company  to  publish 
records  of  defects  that  may  exist  there.  If  we 
had,  there  would  be  a  large  number  of  Corliss 
engines  which  would  have  to  be  stopped  and 
have  larger  piston  rods  put  in.  There  are  a 
great  many  of  these  engines  running  that  were 
built  some  twenty-five  years  ago  (designed  for 
a  mean  pressure  of  30  pounds  and  a  piston 
speed  of  about  350  feet),  that  have  been  speed- 
ed up  and  the  pressure  increased.  When  one 
of  these  engines  breaks  down  they  usually 
send  to  the  shop ;  the  wise  man  comes  and 
tells  the  manager  that  there  was  too  much 
water  in  the  boiler,  and  that  the  engine  was 
blown  up  by  too  much  water  ;  now  the  boiler 
is  blown  up  by  too  little  water,  while  it  is  very 
rarely  the  case  that  there  is  a  grain  of  truth  in 
either  statement. 

Boilers  that  are  not  strong  enough  to  with- 
stand the  pressure  explode,  and  overloaded  en- 


9t 

gines  of  faulty  design  and  poor  material  are 
liable  to  accident,  while  a  really  first-class 
man  is  doing  all  in  his  power  to  prevent  it. 

The  older  engineers  of  the  country  will  re- 
member when  the  original  builders  of  the  Cor- 
liss engine  used  cast-iron  main  shafts,  and  the 
numerous  breaks  caused  by  them;  and  still  we 
have  cast  iron  cranks,  cross-heads  and  valve 
arms.  The  spring  of  the  cast-iron  crank  on  a 
full  loaded  engine  is  quite  appalling.  Put  the 
engine  on  the  center,  and  work  the  valves  by 
hand,  and  measure  this  deflection.  Certainly, 
a  stiffer  crank  is  needed. 

The  valve  arms  seldom  break  if  the  valves 
are  properly  oiled.  Oiling  the  cylinder  three 
or  four  strokes  with  the  oil  pump  every  ten  or 
fifteen  minutes  will  require  nearly  one  gallon 
of  oil  per  day,  and  still  the  valves  will  be  dry 
nearly  half  the  time.  The  Corliss  oil-pump 
discharges  one  cubic  inch  at  each  stroke,  and 
that  single  stroke  does  not  oil  the  cylinder  and 
valves  any  better  than  one  drop  ;  therefore  it  is 
much  better  to  have  good  automatic  sight-feed 
cups  for  this  purpose. 

The  cast-iron  cross-heads  are  seldom  sound, 
and  the  manner  in  which  they  are  suppoited  is 


92 

very  faulty.  The  latest  patterns  correct  this, 
but  there  are  a  great  many  of  the  old  style  in 
use  that  can  be  improved  by  the  engineer  in 
the  manner  shown  by  the  illustration. 

The  nut  under  the  cross  head  in  Fig.   i  will 
not  hold  the  cross  head  firmly,  and  long  con- 


Fig.  I 


tinued  working  will  be  likely  to  break  the  pis- 
ton  rod.  This  movement  of  the  cross  head  at 
the  outer  end  cannot  be  seen,  but  it  is  there  all 
the  same.  The  support  given  by  the  bolL, 
from  the  V,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2,  are  adjustable, 
and  remedy  this  trouble. 


APPENDIX. 


CHAPTER   I. 


PROPORTIONS. 

The  pressure  on  bearings  is  figured  as  the 

projected  area  and  equals  the  length  multiplied 

by  the  diameter. 

Main  bearings       .  .         350  Ibs.  per  sq.  in. 
Crank  pins  .  .         450    ,,      ,,        ,, 

Guide  blocks         .  .         150    „      „ 
Crosshead  pins      .  .         900    ,,      ,,        „ 
The  diameter  of  fly-wheels  should  be  about 

four  times  the  stroke  of  the  engine. 

The  speed  of  fly-wheels  should  never  exceed 

a  circumferential   velocity   of    4,500   feet   per 

minute. 

The  average  piston  speed  for  Corliss  engines 

snould  not  exceed  500  ft.  per  minute. 

The  following  tables  will  be  found  useful  for 

r°  ference. 


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With  a  description  of  the 

AUTOMATIC  GOVERNOR. 
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And  Six  Large  Folding  Plates  of  Details. 


LIST    OF    PLATES. 

I. — Longitudinal  Section  through  Cylinder,  and  Top 
View  of  Horizontal  High  Speed  Steam  Engine. 
II.— Side  Elevation  of  High  Speed  Horizontal  Steam 
Engine. 

ill. — Detail  Drawing  of  Connecting  Rod,  and  Piston 
of  High  Speed  Horizontal  Steam  Engine. 

IV.— Detail  of  Piston  Valve,  Eccentric  Strap  and 
Rod,  Valve  Stem  Bracket,  and  Eccentric  of 
High  Speed  Horizontal  Steam  Engine. 
V.— Detail  of  Cross-Head,  Cross-Head  Slipper, 
Cross-Head  Pin,  Wrist  Pin,  Crank  Pin,  Stuffing 
Box,  etc.,  of  High  Speed  Horizontal  Steam 
Engine. 

VI. — Detail  of  Centrifugal  Automatic  Governor  for 
High  Speed  Horizontal  Steam  Engine. 


With  Full  Descriptive  flatter.      Price,  50  Cents. 


J.  P.  LISK'S  DIAGRAMS 

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Showing  the 

RELATIVE     POSITION     OF     RECIPROCATING 

AND   ROTATING    PARTS   FOR   EACH 

15  DEGREES  OF  THE  CIRCLE. 

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The  Crank  Circle  Explained. 

This  is  a  fine  engraving  reduced  from  a  large  scale 
drawing  of  the  most  up-to-date  types  of  American 
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admission,  lead,  full  feed  port  opening,  cut-off,  re- 
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THE 


FIREMAN'S  GUIDE 

A  Handbook  on  the  Care  of  Boilers 

BY  KARL  P.  DAHLSTROM,  M.E. 


CONTENTS  OF  CHAPTERS 

I.  Firing  and  Economy  of   Fuel.— Precautions 
before   and   after  starting   the   fire,   care  of  the  fire, 
proper  firing,  draft,  smoke,  progress  of  firing,  fuel  on 
the  grate,  cleaning  out,  cleaning  grate  bars  and  ash 
pan,  dampers,  firing  into  two   or  more  furnaces,  dry 
fuel,  loss  of  heat. 

II.  Feed  and  Water  Line.— Feeding,  the  water 
line,  false  water   line,   defective   feeding   apparatus, 
formation   of   scale,   gauge  cocks,    glass   gauge,   the 
float,  safety  plug,  alarm  whistle. 

III.  Low  Water  and   Foaming  or  Priming.— 
Precautions  when  water  is  low,  foaming,  priming. 

IV.  Steam  Pressure. — Steam  gauge,  safety  valves. 

V.  Cleaning  and   Blowing  Out.— Cleaning    the 
boiler,  to  examine    the   state  of  the  boiler,  blowing 
out,  refilling  the  boiler. 

VI.  General  Directions.— How  to  prevent  acci- 
dents, repairs,  the  care  of  the  boiler  when  not  in  use, 
testing    boilers,    trimming     and     cleaning     outside. 
Summary  of  rules.     Index. 

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HOW  TO  RUN 


engines  and  Boilers 

ractical  Instruction  for  Young  Engineers    an 
Steam   Users. 

BY  EGBERT  POMEROY  WATSON 


REVISED  AND  ENLARGED 


Synopsis  of  Contents 

Cleaning  the  boiler,  removing  scale,  scale  pre- 
venters, oil  in  boilers,  braces  and  stays,  mud  drums 
and  feed  pipes,  boiler  fittings,  grate  bars  and  tubes, 
bridge  walls,  the  slide  valve,  throttling  engine,  the 
piston,  testing  the  slide  valve  with  relation  to  the 
ports,  defects  of  the  slide  valve,  lap  and  lead,  the 
pressure  on  a  slide  valve,  stem  connections  to  the 
valve,  valves  off  their  seats,  valve  stem  guides,  gov- 
ernors, running  with  the  sun,  eccentrics  and  connec- 
tions, the  crank  pin,  brass  boxes,  bearings  on  pins, 
adjustment  of  bearings,  the  valve  and  gearing,  set- 
ting eccentrics,  the  actual  operation,  return  crank 
motion,  pounding,  the  connections,  lining  up  engines, 
making  joints,  condensing  engines,  Torricelli's 
vacuum,  proof  of  atmospheric  pressure,  pumps,  no 
power  in  a  vacuum,  supporting  a  water  column  by 
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GOOD    AMERICAN    PRACTICE. 


ELEMENTARY  TEXT  BOOK 


CTEAM  FNGINES  AND 

O=  gOILERS 

By  J.  H.   KINEALY,  M.E. 

A  first  class  American  Book  for  young  Engineers 
and  all  those  wishing  to  take  a  higher  position. 

CONTENTS    OF    CHAPTERS. 

i.  Elementary  Thermodynamics.  2.  Theory  of  the 
Steam  Engine.  3,  Types  and  details  of  Engines.  4. 
Admission  of  Steam  by  Valve.  5.  Valve  diagrams. 
6.  Indicator  and  indicator  cards.  7.  Compound  En- 
gines and  condensers.  8.  Heat  and  combustion  of 
fuel.  9.  Boilers,  types,  fittings,  etc,  10.  Chimneys. 
APPENDIX  Care  of  Boilers,  Tables,  Numerous  Prob- 
lems with  answers. 

Third  edition,  (1901),  thoroughly  revised  to  date 
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259  pages,  108  illustrations,  size  pj  x  6J. 
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card.  Price,  250. 

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M.  E.  A  diagram  of  the  Slide  Valve,  showing  posi- 
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LUBRICANTS, 

OILS  <£  AND  .*  GREASES 

Treated  Theoretically  and  Giving  Practical  Informa- 
tion Regarding  Their 

COMPOSITION,   USES    AND    MANUFACTURE 
BY  ILTYD  I.  REDWOOD 


CONTENTS 

INTRODUCTION. — Lubricants. 

THEORETICAL. — Chapter  I.  Mineral  Oils:  American 
and  Russian;  Hydrocarbons.  Chapter  II.  Fatty- 
Oils:  Glycerides;  Vegetable  Oils;  Fish  Oils. 
Chapter  III.  Mineral  Lubricants:  Graphite; 
Plumbago.  Chapter  IV.  Greases:  Compounded; 
"Set  "or  Axle;  "  Boiled  "  or  Cup.  Chapter  V. 
Tests  of  Oils:  Mineral  Oils.  Fatty  Oils. 

MANUFACTURE. — Chapter  VI.  Mineral  Oil  Lubri- 
cants: Compounded  Oils;  Debloomed  Oils. 
Chapter  VII.  Greases:  Compounded  Greases; 
"Set"  or  Axle  Greases;  Boiled  Greases;  En- 
gine Greases.  Appendix.  The  Action  of  Oils  on 
Various  Metals.  Index. 

TABLES. — I.  Viscosity  and  Specific  Gravity.  II. 
Atomic  Weights.  III.  Origin,  Tests,  Etc.,  of 
Oils.  IV.  Action  of  Oils  on  Metals. 

LIST  OF  PLATES. — I. — I.  I.  Redwood's  Improved 
Set  Measuring  Apparatus.  II.  Section  Grease 
Kettle.  III.  Diagram  of  the  Action  of  Oils  on 
Different  Kinds  of  Metals. 

8vo,  cloth,  $1.50. 


THEORETICAL  AND  PRACTICAL 


Ammonia  Refrigeration 

• Reference  for  Engineers  and  others  Empi 
•tagement  of  Ice  and  Refrigeration  Machit, 

By  ILTYD  I.  REDWOOD 


A  Work  of  Reference  for  Engineers  and  others  Employed  in  the 
Management  of  Ice  and  Refrigeration  Machinery. 


CONTENTS 

B.  T.  U.  Mechanical  Equivalent  of  a  Unit  of  Heat. 
Specific  Heat.  Latent  Heat.  Theory  of  Refrigeration. 
Freezing,  by  Compressed  Air.  Ammonia.  Charac- 
teristics of  Ammonia.  The  Compressor.  Stuffing- 
Boxes.  Lubrication.  Suction  and  Discharge  Valves. 
Separator.  Condenser-Worm,  Receiver.  Refrigera- 
tor or  Brine  Tank.  Size  of  Pipe  and  Area  of  Cooling 
Surface.  Charging  the  Plantwith  Ammonia.  Jacket- 
Water,  for  Compressor,  for  Separator.  Quantity  of 
Condensing  Water  Necessary.  Loss  due  to  Heating 
of  Condensed  Ammonia.  Cause  of  Variation  in  Ex- 
cess Pressure.  Use  of  Condensing  Pressure  in  Deter- 
mining Loss  of  Ammonia  by  Leakage.  Cooling  Di- 
rectly by  Ammonia.  Freezing  Point  of  Brine.  Mak- 
ing Brine.  Specific  Heat  of  Brine.  Regulation  of 
Brine  Temperature.  Indirect  Effect  of  Condensing 
Water  on  Brine  Temperature.  Directions  for  Deter- 
mining Refrigerating  Efficiency.  Equivalent  of  a  Ton 
of  Ice.  Compressor  Measurement  of  Ammonia  Circu- 
lated. Loss  of  Well-Jacketed  Compressors.  Loss  in 
Double-Acting  Compressors.  Distribution  of  Mer- 
cury Wells.  Examination  of  Working  Parts.  Indica- 
tor Diagrams.  Ammonia  Figures — Effectual  Displace- 
ment. Volume  of  Gas.  Ammonia  Circulated  per 
Twenty-Four  Hours.  Refrigerating  Efficiency.  Brine 
Figures — Gallons  Circulated.  Pounds  Circulated.  De- 
grees Cooled.  Total  Degrees  Extracted.  Loss  due  to 
Heating  of  Ammonia  Gas.  Loss  due  to  Heating  of 
Liquid  Ammonia.  Calculation  of  the  Maximum  Ca- 
pacity of  a  Machine.  Preparation  of  Anhydrous  Am- 
monia. Construction  of  Apparatus,  etc.,  etc. 
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Mechanics,  Young  Engineers  and  Home  Students 


BY  W.  PAOET  HIQOS,  M.A.,  D.Sc. 


FOURTH  EDITION 

CONTENTS 

Symbols  and  the  signs  of  operation.  The  equa- 
tion and  the  unknown  quantity.  Positive  and  nega- 
tive quantities.  Multiplication,  involution,  exponents, 
negative  exponents,  roots,  and  the  use  of  exponents 
as  logarithms.  Logarithms.  Tables  of  logarithms 
and  proportional  parts.  Transportation  of  systems 
of  logarithms.  Common  uses  of  common  logarithms. 
Compound  multiplication  and  the  binomial  theorem. 
Division,  fractions  and  ratio.  Rules  for  division. 
Rules  for  fractions.  Continued  proportion,  the  series 
and  the  summation  of  the  series.  Examples.  Geo- 
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A  NEW  BOOK.     Latest  American  Practice. 

El-ECTRIC 

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HOW  TO  INSTALL 

ELECTRIC  GAS  IGNITING  APPARATUS 

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Also  the  care  and  selection  of  suitable  Batteries, 
Wiring  and  Repairs. 

By  H.  S.  NORRIE. 

(Author  of  Induction  Coils  and  Coil  Making.) 

Contents  of  Chapters  : 

i.  Introduction.  Means  of  producing  Sparks,  In- 
duction. Induction  Coils.  2.  Application  of  Induc- 
tion Coils  to  Gas  Lighting.  Forms  of  burners  used, 
pendant,  rachet,  stem,  Welsbach,  Automatic,  Burners 
for  Gasolene  and  Acetylene.  3,  How  to  connect  up 
apparatus.  Wiring  a  house.  Locating  breaks  or  short 
circuits.  Wiring  in  finished  houses.  General  remarks. 
4.  Primary  coils  and  safety  devices.  5.  How  to  wire 
and  fit  up  different  systems  for  lighting  of  large  build- 
ngs.  6.  The  selection  of  suitable  batteries  for  gas 
lighting,  repairs,  maintenance,  etc. 

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INDUCTION  COILS 


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Construction,  Operation  and  Application. 
By  H.  S.  NORRIE. 


Second  edition,  thoroughly  revised  and  greatly  en- 
larged, and  including  25  new  illustrations.  A  good 
deal  of  the  new  matter  is  devoted  to  Medical  Coils, 
Bath  Coils,  Gas  Engine  and  Spark  Coils,  Contact 
Breakers,  Batteries,  X-Ray  Work,  Electric  Gas 
Lighting,  and  a  chapter  on  Wireless  Telegraphy. 

CONTENTS  OF  CHAPTERS. 

i.  Coil  construction,  full  directions,  sizes  of  wires, 
&c.,  &c.  2.  Construction  of  different  forms  of  con- 
tact breakers.  3.  Insulating  materials,  cements,  &c. 
4.  Construction  of  various  kinds  of  condensers.  5. 
Experiments.  6.  Spectrum  analysis  7.  Currents  in 
vacuo.  8.  Rotating  effects.  9.  The  application  of 
coils  to  gas  lighting.  10.  Batteries  for  coils,  n. 
Secondary  Batteries.  12.  Tesla  and  Hertz  effects.  13. 
X-Rays  and  radiography.  14.  Wireless  telegraphy, 
Contents.  Index. 

290  pages,  79  Illus.  5x6^  in. 

CI-OTH,  $1.00 


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How  Made  and  Used 

A  Practical  Handbook  for  Students  and  Young 
Electricians 

EDITED  BY  PERCIVAL  MARSHALL,  A.I.M.E. 


Contents  of  Chapters 

I. — The  Theory  of  the  Accumulator. 
II. — How  to  make  a  4-Volt  Pocket  Accumulator. 
III. — How  to  make  a  32-Ampere-Hour  Accumulator. 
IV. — Types  of  Small  Accumulators. 
V. — How  to  Charge  and  Use  Accumulators, 
yi. — Applications  of  Small  Accumulators,  Electrical  Nov- 
elties, etc.     Useful  Receipts.     Glossary  of  Technical  Terms. 
80  pages,  40  illustrations,  12mo,  cloth,  50c. 

THE  MAGNETO-TELEPHONE 

ITS  CONSTRUCTION, 

Fitting  Up  and  Adaptability  to  Every=Day  Use 
BY  NORMAN  HUGHES 


CONTENTS  OF  CHAPTERS 

Some  electrical  considerations  :  I. — Introductory.  II. — 
Construction.  III. — Lines,  Indoor  Lines.  IV. — Signalling 
Apparatus/  V. — Batteries.  Open  Circuit  Batteries.  Closed 
Circuit  Batteries.  VI. — Practical  Operations.  Circuit  with 
Magneto  Bells  and  Lightning  Arresters.  How  to  Test  the 
Line.  Push-Button  Magneto  Circuit.  Two  Stations  with 
Battery  Bells.  VII.— Battery  Telephone.  Battery  Tele- 
phone Circuit.  Three  Instruments  on  one  Line.  VIII. — 
General  remarks.  Index. 
80  pages,  23  illustrations,  12mo,  cloth,  $1.00.  In  paper,  50c. 


EVERYBODY'S  BOOK  ON  ELECTRICITY 

PRACTICAL  ELECTRICS 

A  UNIVERSAL  HANDY-BOOK 

ON 

EVERYDAY  ELECTRICAL  MATTERS 


EDITION 


CONTENTS: 

Alarms. — Doors  and  Windows;  Cisterns;  Low  Water  in 
Boilers;  Time  Signals;  Clocks.  Batteries.— Making ;  Cells; 
Bichromate  ;  Bunsen  ;  Callan's  ;  Copper-oxide  ;  Cruiksnank's ; 
Daniel's;  Granule  carbon;  Groves;  Insulite ;  Leclanche; 
Lime  Chromate  ;  Silver  Chloride  ;  Smee ;  Thermo-electric. 
Bells. — Annunciator  System ;  Double  System ;  and  Telephone  ; 
Making;  Magnet  for;  Bobbins  or  Coils;  Trembling;  Single 
Stroke ;  Continuous  Ringing.  Connections.  Carbons.  Coils. 
— Induction  ;  Primary  ;  Secondary  ;  Contact-breakers ;  Re- 
sistance. Intensity  Coils. — Reel ;  Primary  ;  Secondary  ;  Core  ; 
Contact-breaker  ;  Condenser  ;  Pedestal ;  Commutator  ;  Con- 
nections. Dynamo-electric  Machines.— Field-Magnets  ;  Pole- 
pieces  ;  Field-magnet  Coils;  Armature  Cores  and  Coils; 
Commutator  Collectors  and  Brushes;  Relation  of  size  to 
efficiency ;  Methods  of  exciting  Field-Magnets ;  Magneto- 
Dynamos  ;  Separately  excited  Dynamos;  Shunt  Dynamos; 
Field-Magnets;  Armatures;  Collectors;  Brush  Dynamo; 
Alternate  Currents.  I'ire  Risks  — Wires  ;  Lamps  ;  Danger  to 
persons.  Measuring. — Non-Registering  Instruments  ;  Regis- 
tering Instruments.  Microphones.  Motors.  Phonographs. 
Photophones.  Storage.  Telephones. — Forms  ;  Circuits  and 
Calls ;  Transmitter  and  Switch  ;  Switch  for  Simplex  ;  etc.,  etc. 

135  PAGES.  126  ILLUSTRATIONS.  8VO. 

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